^^^ ^.^^^^^ 




,^.s. 



^.^^>^/^ ^^^ 








^02^,-4_ 




REPORT 



VITAL STATISTICS 



UNITED STATES, 



MADE TO THE 



MUTUAL LIFE INSURANCE COMPANY OF NEW YORK. 



BY JAMES WYNNE, M. J)., 

MEMBER OF THE AMERICAN MEDICAL ASSOCIATION ; OF THE AMERICAN ASSOCIATION FOR THE 

ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE ; CORRESPONDINa MEMBER OF THE AMERICAN ETHNOLOGICAL 

SOCIETY ; OP THE NEW YORK LYCEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY, to., &c, &q. 









4 



NEW YORK: H. Baillieee, 290 Broadway. 

LONDON: 219 Regent Street. PARIS: J. B. Baillieee et Fils, Rue Hantefeiiille. 

MADRID : 0. Bailly Baillieee, 11 Calle del Principe. 



1857. 




i^ 



PREFACE 



e/3 



The accompanying Keport was originally made to the Presi- 
dent and Trustees of tlie Mutual Life Insurance Company, of 
New York, wlio, in the prosecution of an extended business, had 
long felt the necessity for a more full and exact knowledge of 
Vital Statistics upon which to base their operations than was 
attainable. They had, indeed, through their medical examiners 
and other officials obtained many valuable statistics from all parts 
of the Union, which, upon the selection of the writer to make this 
report, were placed by Mr. Winston, the President of the Com- 
pany, under whose auspices they were collected, in his hands, 
and together furnish no inconsiderable source of information. 

The statistical records of the General and State Governments, 
and the contributions of many individual statisticians, have like- 
wise supplied reliable data, of whose value the reader will have 
an opportunity of determining for himself. The deductions 
drawn either from admitted or supposed premises, are so given 



IV PREFACE. 



as to enable a comparison to be instituted between the facts upon 
which they are based, and the reasoning consequent upon them ; 
and while all mere speculations are avoided, it is hoped that the 
principles developed may be found a safe guide in the conduct of 
a business which involves a trust, so vast in a pecuniary point of 
view, and so sacred in its moral obligations, as that of Life 
Assurance. ' 

It may be proper to add, that the collection of Vital Statis- 
tics, upon a comj)rehensive scale, is a new subject in the United 
States ; and although this Report embraces many points whose 
elucidation is tolerably well defined, yet a large number await 
the collection of those facts which the General or State Govern- 
ments, or both, must sooner or later gather together. 

It is highly gratifying to be able to state in this connection, 
that in addition to the Company to whom the Report was 
originally made, all the Life Insurance Companies in the United 
States, with the exception of six or eight, have, with great 
unanimity and much kind feeling, united in defraying the expenses 
of the present publication. This is the more pleasing to the 
writer, inasmuch as it not only evinces a desire on the part of 
those engaged in this important and highly intellectual depart- 
ment of business to secure the aid of science, but is at the same 
time an earnest that, in their esteem, his labors are not devoid 
of value. 



PREFACE. 

The Companies above alluded to are — 

The New York Life Insurance Company, of New York. 
United States Life Insurance Company, of New York. 
The Manhattan Life Insurance Company, of New l^ork. 
Knickerbocker Life Insurance Company, of New York. 
Mutual Benefit Life Insurance Company, of New Jersey. 
Penn Life Insurance Company, of Philadelphia. 
United States Life Insurance, Annuity and Trust Company, 
of Philadelphia. 

American Life Insurance and Trust Company, of Philadelphia. 
Massachusetts Hospital Life Insurance Company, of Boston. 
New England MuTu^ii Life Insurance Company, of Boston. 
Union Mutual Life Insurance Company, of Boston. 
The State Mutual Life Assurance Company, of Worcester, Mass. 
American Mutual Life Insurance Company, of New Haven. 
Charter Oak Life Insurance Company, of Hartford. 
American Temperance Life Insurance Company, of Hartford. 
Connecticut Mutual Life Insurance Company, of Hartford. 
International Life Insurance Company, of London. 
Liverpool and London Life Insurance Company. 



VITAL STATISTICS. 



CHAPTER L 

INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. 



By a wise provision of Providence, the period of death in any indivi- 
dual instance during a state of health, is always a subject of extreme 
uncertainty, and it consequently happens that, although human life has an 
expectation of continuance proportioned to its past duration, and the 
collateral circumstances by which it is surrounded, yet the span of its 
existence is liable to be severed at any one moment of its being. 

Were the circumstances affecting its duration always the same, the 
period of life in any particular case might be defined with much certainty^ 
but as these are found to be ever varying, so the expectation insepar- 
ably interwoven with them, becomes a question whose solution depends 
in a great degree upon the doctrine of probability. 

It is impossible to determine whether any coming event will happen or 
not. Yet it is possible to conjecture the number of cases in which it may 
occur, and of these, the number in which its occurrence is probable. Ma- 
thematically speaking the probability of an event, is the ratio of the favor- 
able circumstances likely to occur in its regard, and the proportion of those 
in which it is likely to happen to those in which it is not; thus, the proba- 
bility of throwing an ace with dice, is one in six. And again ; when two 
dice are thrown, the probability of any given number being uppermost, as 



10 INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. 

seven is likewise one ih six ; because, every one of the six numbers on one 
of the dice may combine with one of the six on the other so as to form the 
number seven ; now, as the number of combinations is thirty-six, and there 
are six ways in which seven may occur, its chances of occurrence are six in 
thirty-six times, or one chance in six. 

The value of the information thus obtained is far from being lessened 
because of its dependence upon what at first sight appears to be vague 
and uncertain. How much the acquired knowledge possessed by mankind 
is exclusively due to this source, may not at first view be imagined. 
Upon it are based the actions and judgments which constitute the affairs 
of every day life — confidence in the succession of future events, and in 
part, at least, the almost miraculous power, by which the astronomer, 
following with his calculations the flight of the comet, long after it has 
disappeared from the field of his telescope — predicts the time of its 
re-appearance after a fixed and stated interval. 

But the problems of the mathematician used in these determinations are 
the mere instruments, delicate and polished though they may be, by which 
these questions are determined. The materials from which he fashions 
his work, are furnished by those statistical records of the movements 
of population— which enlightened governments have found it to their 
interest to collect and preserve ; and here the researches of medicine 
become so intimately blended with those of mathematics, that their 
division is next to impossible, and seems to require that the prosecutor 
of the one should also be a proficient in the other. 

The practice of registering births and deaths, is of extremely antique 
origin. We are possessed of sufficient information in relation to the habits 
of the early inhabitants of Asia and Africa, to enable us to speak positively 
in regard to the fact that, among the more influential and polished nations 
of these countries, registers of this kind were kept. The practice was 



INTRODUCTORY REMARKS, 11 

continued by the Greeks and the Romans, but the records which contained 
the enumerations like those of the nations that preceded them, have unfor- 
tunately been destroyed ; and their previous existence is only revealed by 
collateral testimony. 

The earliest continuous register of births, deaths, and marriages now- 
extant, is that kept by the city of Geneva, in Switzerland, which dates 
back to 1549, and has been continued from that time to the present, with 
great care and accuracy. This city, which has attained to a high degree of 
refinement, furnishes in the improvement in the progression of its popula- 
tion and increased duration of life, a striking evidence in favor of the 
benefits of the adoption of this system. 

I have before me (remarks Mr. Shattuck) the results of an examination made by- 
Edward Mallet, a very able work, published in the " Annales D'Hygiene." From 
this work it appears that human life has wonderfully improved since these registers 
were kept. The number of years which it was probable that every individual born 
would live, appears in the different periods as follows : — 

Period. Years. Months. Days. Rate of Increase. 

1550 to 1600 8 n 26 100 

1600 to irOO ..... 13 3 16 153 

lYOlto n50 27 9 13 ~ 321 

1Y51 to 1800 31 3 5 361 

1801 to 1813 40 8 10 4Y0 

1814 to 183 3 45 29 521 

Showing that the mean duration of life has increased more than five times during 
these periods ! 

The progression of the population and increased duration of life has been 
attended by a progression in happiness. As prosperity advanced, marriages became 
fewer and later. The proportion of births was reduced, but a greater number 
of the infants born were preserved, and the proportion of the population in 
manhood became greater. In the early ages, the excessive mortality was accom- 
panied by an excessive fecundity. In the last ten years of the 17th century, a 



12 INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. 

marriage still produced more than five cliildren ; the probable duration of life 
attained was not 20 years. Towards the end of the 18th century, there were scarcely 
three children to a marriage, and the probabilities exceeded 32 years. At the 
present time a marriage only produces 2f children, and the probability of life is 
45 years. 

Geneva has arrived at a high state of civilization. The real productive power 
of the population has increased in a much greater proportion than the increase in 
its actual number. The absolute number of the population has only doubled 
during three centuries ; but the value of the population — the productive powers- 
has more than doubled upon the mere numerical increase. In other words, a 
population of 27,000, in which the probability of life is 40 years for each individual, 
is more than twice as strong for the purposes of production, as a population of 
27,000, in which the probability or value of life was only 20 years for each indi- 
vidual. 

This wonderful improvement is attributed, among other things, by M. Mallet, 
to the information obtained, rendering the science of public health better known 
and understood ; to larger, better and cleaner dwellings ; to more abundant and 
more healthy food ; and to a better regulated public and private life. He cites an 
instance of the effects of regimen in the preservation of life, where 86 orphans had 
been reared in one establishment in 24 years, and one only of whom had died. 
They were taken fi-om the poor, among whom the average mortality was six times as 
great. 

Most of the countries of Europe have systems of registration, more or 
less perfect ; the oldest of which, however, do not extend back to a period 
beyond eighty years. That of England, which has been productive of 
more important results than any other, dates from 1838, and is, conse- 
quently, of less than twenty years' duration. 

In the United States, although some laws were enacted in the New 
England States at an early period, yet no decisive action was taken until 
1842, when Massachusetts, adopting in a great degree the plan of the 
English Registration Act, had the honor to furnish the nucleus, around 
which the registration system, so far as it has been adopted, has gathered. 
An Act for registration was enacted in New York, in 1847 ; in New Jersey 



INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. 13 

and Connecticut, in 1848 ; in New Hampshire, in 1849 ; in Rhode Island, 
in 1850; in Pennsylvania, Virginia and Kentucky, in 1851; and in South 
Carolina, in 1853. The results of these various Acts, so far as they have 
been made public, are to be found in the Annual Registration Reports of 
Massachusetts, Connecticut, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, 
Kentucky and Virginia. Some of these reports, and particularly those 
of the State of Massachusetts, are prepared with much ability, and con- 
stitute valuable contributions to vital statistics. Others, as those of 
Connecticut, are meagre, and less reliable. 

The wide difference manifest in the general character and value of 
the reports already made, clearly establishes the fact that the United States 
never can possess a system of registration which will correspond in uni- 
formity and value with those of the Governments of Europe, until the 
task and responsibility of executing it be confided to the General 
Government. 

What, value is attached to this information by the enlightened states- 
men of other countries, may be deduced from the following remarks made 
by the Registrar-General of England : — "The census has been taken decen- 
nially with great regularity in the United States of America ; and the ages 
are properly distinguished, but abstracts of the registers of deaths have 
only been published by the cities of New York, Philadelphia, Boston, and 
some of the more advanced towns where property has accumulated ; and 
life is watched over with more care and facility than in the back settle- 
ments — scantily peopled with a fluctuating population. No correct life- 
table can, therefore, be formed for the population of America until they 
adopt, in addition to the census, the system of registration which exists in 
European States." 

" Since an English life-table has now been framed from the necessary 
data, I venture to express a hope, that the facts may be collected and 



14 INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. 

abstracted, from which life-tables for other countries can be constructed. 
A comparison of the duration of successive generations in England, France, 
Prussia, Austria, Russia, America, and other states, would throw much 
light on the physicial condition of the respective populations, and suggest 
to scientific and benevolent individuals in every country — and to govern- 
ments — many ways of diminishing the sulferings, and ameliorating the 
health and condition of the people ; for the longer life of a nation denotes 
more than it does in an individual — a happier life — a life more exempt 
from sickness and infirmity — a life of greater energy and industry — of 
greater experience and wisdom. By these comparisons a noble national 
emulation might be excited ; and rival nations would read of sickness 
diminished, deformity banished, life saved — of victories over death and the 
grave, with as much enthusiasm as of victories over each other's armies in 
the field ; and the triumph of one would not be the humiliation of the other, 
for in this contention none could lose territory, or' honor, or blood, but all 
would gain strength." * 

In addition to the information collected under the Registration Laws, 
are the bills of mortality kept by most of the populous towns in the United 
States. This latter source of information is, at the present moment, so far 
as it goes, the most reliable ; and were it on a sufficiently extended scale, 
might supersede the necessity for registration, as it obtains under the 
present State enactments ; but it could never equal in exactness and value 
such a system as is in use in England, were it extended to the whole 
country, and placed under the control and management of the General 
Government. 

The census mortality returns, although far short of what could be 
desired, clearly show the ability of the government, under a proper regulated 

* Fifth Annual Eeport Kegister-General of England, p. 19. 



INTEODUCTORY REMARKS, 15 

system, to collect and arrange mortuary registers, wliicli shall equal in 
exactness and value, those of any country in Europe. In order to accom- 
plish this, or even to give the ordinary census returns an approximation to 
correctness, it is necessary that the office work be executed by those who, 
from peculiar adaptation and long experience, possess an especial fitness 
for the undertaking. 

" Unless there is machinery in advance at the seat of Government, no census 
can ever be properly taken and published. There is a peculiar education required 
for these labors which neither comes from zeal or genius, but is the result only of 
experience. They are the most irksome and trying imaginable, requiring inex- 
haustible patience and endurance, and baiSing almost every effort after accuracy. 
Long familiarity can alone secure system, economy, and certainty of result. This 
office machinery exists in all European countries where statistics are the most reliable, 
but there has been none of it in the United States. Each census has taken care of 
itself Every ten years some one at "Washington will enter the hall of a department, 
appoint fifty or a hundred persons under him, who, perhaps, have never compiled 
a table before, and are incapable of combining a column of figures correctly. Hun- 
dreds of thousands of pages of returns are placed in the hands of such persons to 
be digested. If any are qualified, it is no merit of the system. In 1840, returns 
were given out by the job to whoever would take them. In 1850, such was the 
pressure of work, that almost any one could at times have had a desk. Contrast 
this with the English system, and reflect that one individual presided over the census 
of 1801, '11, '21 and '31. In Washington, as soon as an office acquires familiarity 
with statistics, and is educated to accuracy and activity, it is disbanded, and even 
the best qualified employee is suffered to depart. The government may rely upon 
paying heavily for the experience which is being acquired. Even the head of the 
office, whatever his previous training, must expect, if faithful, to learn daily ; and it 
is not going too far to say that a matter of one or two hundred thousand dollars is 
the difference between the amount which a census would cost, conducted by an 
office which has had the experience of a previous one, (even if partly or entirely in 
new hands, which might often be desirable, since the machinery, as in other offices, 
would be kept up,) and an office without such experience. This can be demon- 
strated if required. Half of that amount would sustain an office of several persons 
from census to census, and defray all of the expenses of an annual or biennial report 



16 INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. 

after the closing of the regular one, which itself would he executed with despatch) 
with greatly less force, and with a more economical and wiser application of labor. 
The permanent force would have no other interest than the prompt execution of the 
work." . 

In regard to the confidence to be reposed in the present mortality 
returns, the report makes the following candid statement : — ■- 

" The federal census of 1850 furnislies the first instance of an attempt to obtain 
the mortality during one year in all the States of the tJnion, and had there been as 
much care observed in the execution of the law as was taken in framing it, and 
in the preparation of necessary blanks, a mass of information must have resulted 
relating to the sanitary condition of the country, attained as yet in no other part of 
the world. This, however, would have been expecting too much. It was to take 
for granted, first, that the person interrogated in each family, whoever he might be, 
with regard to its affairs, would be able to recollect whatever death had occurred in 
it within the period of twelve months ; and, second, to give the true designation of 
the cause of such death. One would think it not unreasonable that the facts of 
actual deaths would be striking and impressive enough in every household to be 
remembered for a much longer period than a single year ; yet the returns of the 
marshals have only to be examined with care, and deductions made from them, to 
satisfy the most careful observer that in the Union at large at least one-fourth of 
the whole number of deaths have not been reported at all. Making allowance for 
even this error, the United States would appear to be one of the healthiest countries 
of which there is any record. The varying ratios between the States, as drawn 
from the returns, show not so much in favor of or against the health of either, as 
they do, in all probability, a more or less perfect report of the marshals. Thus it is 
impossible to believe Mississippi a healthier State than Rhode Island, etc. For 
rural population the returns are no doubt nearer correct than they are for urban^ 
and the old States are in general better reported than the new. So far as the 
educated are in question, the assigned causes of death on the returns, may be con- 
sidered sufficiently near the truth for popular purposes, though falling far short of 
the precision necessary in skillful scientific calculations ; but among the large mass 
of the community, vagueness and inaccuracy may naturally be expected, even where 
the parties are disposed to speak the truth and make the best eflfort to do so. The 
physician's certificate of the cause, of death is the only positively reliable evidence 
of the fact. 



INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. 17 

" The other points and particulars of inquiry, such as the age, sex, color, con- 
dition, occupation and nativities of parties, the season of decease and duration of 
sickness, stand upon somewhat different ground, and are, from their character, no 
doubt as correctly answered as the inquiries of the census relating to the ages, pur- 
suits, etc., of the living. 

" Upon the whole, then, and we cannot be too emphatic on this point, whilst 
this publication of the mortality statistics of the census is disclaimed as of authority 
m showing the respective pretentions to healthfulness or the degree of unhealthful- 
ness of the several States, or of very great scientific worth in showing the sj)ecijic 
causes of death, it may be considered of much value, notwithstanding, in giving 
with even ordinary claims to precision very minute phenomena relating to the deaths 
of about one-third of a million of people scattered over three millions of square miles 
of territory. The value of such a multitude of facts cannot but be very great, even 
although they do not constitute the whole of them. We are every day accustomed 
to draw deductions for the whole from a part, and to argue out the true and com- 
plete from the approximate and uncertain. 

" It may also be said in favor of the returns as published, that they constitute 
but a beginning, and are not, perhaps, further from the truth than were the first 
attempts in States having registration systems. The same improvement as in these 
States may be expected hereafter. The publication of this volume will stimulate 
investigation and lead to a better understanding of the importance of the subject." 



l8 TERRITORIAL LIMITS. 



CHAPTER II. 



TERRITORIAL LIMITS. 



The territory embraced within the present limits of the United States 
extends from N. latitude 29° to 49°, and from the Atlantic to the Pacific 
Oceans. This vast area contains two millions, nine hundred and thirty-six 
thousand, one hundred and sixty-six square miles, and embraces a more 
extended range of soil and climate than that of any other civilized country 
upon the globe. The opportunity afforded for marking the efi"ects of dif- 
ference of climate, temperature, soil and social institutions, upon the same 
people, is without a parallel, and were the statistical data as exact and reli- 
able as those of the smaller States of Europe, the information would exceed 
in comprehensivness and value, that of any other country, because more 
extensive and general in its range, and involving questions of migration and 
the intermingling of races on a scale unknown elsewhere. 

The Alleghany and Eocky Mountain ranges divide the face of the 
country into the Atlantic plain and slope, which is washed by the Atlantic 
Ocean, and was the earliest settled portion of the United States, the valley 
of the Mississippi lying between the Alleghany and Rocky Mountain ranges, 
watered by the Mississippi river and its tributaries, and the Pacific slope, 
extending from the Rocky Mountains to the shores of the Pacific Ocean, 
and embracing the auriferous region of California. 



GEOGRAPHICAL DIVISIONS. 



19 



The annexed table gives the area of each great division and ratio to 
the total area of the United States : 



Territory. 



Pacific slope 

Atlantic slope propef '.'.*.'.'.'. .'.'.'.'.VlV il'c 

Northern Lake region . " 11'>'649 

Gulf region '....'. ..'.'.'.''.W .'.\'.'.'.'.['.'.['.'.['.\]'.'.'.325,oS1 

Atlantic, Lake and Gulf east and west of the Mississippi 

Mississippi valley, drained by the Mississippi and its tributaries ...'.'.'..'. '. ' [ '. '. [ [ [ '. 

Atlantic, including Northern Lake 627 065 

Mississippi valley and Gulf or Middle region l,543'o99 

Total 



Area in sq. 
miles. 



766,002 



952,602 
1,217,562 



2,936,166 



Ratio of area of 
eacli slope to to- 
tal area of U. S. 



26.09 

17.52 

3.83 

11.09 

32.44 

41.47 
21.35 
52.55 



This is divided into States and Territories, as follows :- 



state or Territory. 



Alabama 

Arkansas 

California 

Columbia, District of. 

Connecticut 

Delaware 

Florida 

Georgia 

Illinois 

Indiana 

Indian Territory (south 

of Kansas 

Iowa 

Kansas 

Kentucky 

Louisiana 

Maine 

Maryland 

Massachusetts 

Michigan 

Minnesota Territory. 
Mississippi 



60,722 

52,198 

165,980 

60 

4,674 

2,120 

69,268 

68,000 

85,405 

33,809 

'71,12'? 
60,914 

114,798 
37,680 
41,265 
31,766 
11,124 
7,800 
66,243 

166,026 
47,166 



1.73 
1.78 
5.32 



0.16 
0.07 
2.02 
1.98 
1.89 
1.15 

2.42 
1.'73 
3.91 
1.28 
1.40 
1.08 
0.38 
0.26 
1.91 
5.65 
1.61 






20 
18 
1 
40 
S7 
38 
13 
14 
16 
29 

10 
19 

9 
28 
26 
30 
32 
36 
15 

6 
22 



State or Territory. 



Missouri 

Nebraska Territory 
New Hampshire . . . 
New Mexico Territory 

New York 

New Jersey 

North Carolina 

Ohio 

Oregon Territory. . . . 

Pennsylvania 

Rhode Island 

South Carolina 

Tennessee 

Texas 

Utah Territory 

Virginia 

Vermont 

Washington Territory 
Wisconsin 



s a 



6'?,880 

335,882 

9,280 

207,007 

47,000 
8,320 

60,704 

39,964 
185,030 

46,000 
1,306 

29,386 

45,600 
237,504 
269,170 

61,362 

10,212 
123,022 

53,924 



Total 2,936,166 



2.29 
11.44 

0.32 
7.05 
1.60 
0.28 
1.73 
1.36 
6.30 
1.57 
0.04 
1.01 
1.55 
8.09 
9.17 
2.10 
0.35 
4.19 
1.84 






11 
1 

34 

4 

23 

35 

21 

27 

5 

24 

39 

31 

25 

3 

2 

12 

33 

8 

17 



The interior valley of North America begins within the tropics and 
terminates with the polar circle, traversing the continent from south to 
north. Dr. Drake says : "Of the area of this great inter-mountain region 



20 DISTRIBUTION AND 

it is not easy to speak with any precision. This valley cannot be estimated 
at less than three-fourths of the continental surface. Its northern half is, 
however, rendered nearly uninhabitable, by the state of its surface and 
climate ; and, therefore, the portion which presents objects of immediate 
interest to the medical etiologist, does not exceed three millions of square 
miles, of which as yet not more than one-third has acquired even a sparse 
population." 

The Rocky Mountains, which constitute the western boundary of the 
great valley, are a continuation of the Cordilleras of Mexico ; and acquire 
an elevation in some places of fourteen thousand feet. The physician who 
would understand the true character of the climate of the interior valley 
from south to north, cannot too strongly fix his attention on this lengthened 
and elevated chain which effectually cuts it off from the genial influences of 
the Pacific Ocean, and bestows upon it the characteristics of an inland and 
peculiar climate, differing altogether fi-om any to be found on the western 
portion of the European continent. 

The entire population, according to the census of 1850, was 23,191,876. 
The estimated population for each succeeding year to 1860, is as follows: — 

Years. Aggregate. 

1851, 23,873,717 

1852, 24,575,604 

1853, 25,298,126 

1854, 26,041,890 

1855, 26,807,521 

1856, 27,595,662 

1857, 28,406,974 

1858, 29,242,139 

1859, 30,101,857 

1860, 30,986,851 



AGES OF POPULATION, 



21 



The distribution of the population of 1850, among the States and Ter- 
ritories, according to their respective ages, is given in the annexed table : — 



STATES AND TEREITORIES. 



Alabama 

Arkansas 

Califoraia 

Columbia, District of... 

Connecticut 

Delaware 

Florida 

Georgia 

Illinois 

Indiana 

Iowa 

Kentucky 

Louisiana 

Maine 

Maryland 

Massachusetts , 

Michigan , 

Mississippi 

Missoui'i 

New Hampshu'e 

New Jersey 

New York 

North Carolina 

Ohio 

Pennsylrania 

Rhode Island 

South Carohna 

Tennessee 

Texas 

Vermont 

Virginia 

Wisconsin 

^ r Minnesota, 

"C S' J -'^^'"^ *Iexieo 

g'C I Oregon 

E-i TTt.nh . _ 



Under 1 
year. 



tUtah. 



20,375 

6,642 

273 

1,319 

7,646 

2,554 

2,236 

24,868 

26,681 

32,296 

6,099 

30,073 

12,232 

13,995 

16,482 

23,192 

10,898 

16,086 

23,231 

6,111 

13,556 

76,837 

24,734 

56,884 

64,331 

3,610 

15,801 

30,151 

6,194 

6,594 

36,308 

10,424 

168 

1,233 

310 

432 



1 and un- 
der 5. 



110,668 

31,614 

1,628 

5,428 

32,808 

10,899 

12,371 

129,939 

115,479 

135,416 

28,191 

133,919 

61,202 

61,781 

69,162 

90,853 

49,143 

88,975 

93,947 

26,952 

54,828 

327,093 

117,384 

253,442 

281,066 

14,106 

91,417 

140,117 

30,594 

31,055 

184,163 

40,948 

751 

7,566 

1,778 

1,744 



5 and un- 
der 10. 



119,389 

33,480 

2,300 

6,731 

39,190 

13,071 

13,380 

141,835 

130,622 

157,714 

31,016 

151,829 

65,458 

74,453 

78,269 

102,797 

59,676 

94,365 

105,176 

33,264 

63,761 

377,605 

131,341 

291,286 

318,226 

15,591 

97,184 

157,608 

32,549 

38,153 

208,260 

42,279 

721 

8,727 

1,873 

1,369 



30 and un- 20 and un- 
der 20. der 60. 



Total 629,446 2,868,327 3,241,268 5,420,421 8,949,797 1,976,700 



193,820 
53,875 
7,610 
11,725 
77,486 
21,842 
19,846 
230,552 
206,790 
246,200 
45,476 
243,745 
106,098 
138,768 
134,124 
203,765 
92,449 
147,564 
167,881 
70,096 
110,473 
676,980 
214,097 
475,981 
524,540 
30,402 
161,624 
260,517 
50,667 
70,494 
344,407 
62,801 
1,030 
14,048 
2,652 
2,707 



50 and un- 80 and un 
der SO. der 100. 



273,717 

74,256 

77,587 

21,435 

159,097 

34,690 

33,041 

312,440 

316,670 

845,431 

70,303 

346,618 

238,019 

223,081 

229,349 

451,194 

155,196 

221,976 

252,760 

129,446 

194,149 

,326,860 

300,568 

734,741 

908,085 

65,725 

238,846 

339,180 

81,172 

123,612 

509,714 

128,097 

3,136 

24,246 

6,014 

4,448 



51,328 

10,328 

2,796 

4, 

51,083 

8,076 

6,247 

62,955 

63,809 

69,006 

10,884 

72,377 

84,068 

66,471 

52,995 

115,027 

29,633 

36,244 

38,776 

47,571 

50,147 

298,462 

76,179 

161,689 

210,814 

17,148 

57,837 

71,224 

10,903 

41,606 

130,825 

20,322 

264 

6,138 

597 

676 



2,063 

248 

31 

216 

3,212 

333 

243 

3,142 

1,076 

1,988 

190 

3,482 

1,196 

3,787 

2,604 

6,433 

627 

1,232 

973 

3,473 

2,441 

18,256 

4,337 

5,722 

8,474 

943 

3,020 

3,548 

270 

2,659 

7,210 

826 

7 

406 

6 

4 



89,077 



100 and up- 
wards. 



163 
24 



7 

10 

9 

36 

221 

18 

32 

1 

157 

176 
13 

131 

19 

9 

140 
45 
12 
26 
88 

249 

58 

76 

3 

206 

148 
39 
10 

389 
2 



40 



Unk'n. 



100 

31 

673 

18 

260 

68 

45 

243 

795 

334 

54 

205 

323 

820 

18 

1,234 

123 

964 

155 

52 

175 

1,713 

160 

626 

1,175 

17 

2,673 

224 

214 

38 

385 

192 



143 
66 



2,665 I 14,285 



By a calculation of the ratios of each age, as given in the above table, 
the following results are obtained : 



Age. 


Number. 


Ratio. 


Age. 


Number. 


Ratio. 


Under 1 year old 


629,446 
2,868,327 
8,661,689 
8,949,797 
1,976,700 


2.71 
12.37 
37.35 
38.59 

8.62 


80 and under 100 


89,077 

2,666 

14,285 




1 and under 5 


.39 
.01 
.06 


6 " 20 




20 " 50 


Aggregate population 


60 " 80 


23,191,876 


100.00 



22 CHARACTERISTICS OF INHABITANTS. 

This population is composed of the inhabitants who assisted in the for- 
mation of the government in 1789, and their descendants — of those who 
have since emigrated, together with their oifspring, and of those who 
were admitted into the Union, when the territory which they inhabited was 
annexed, as in the case of Florida, Louisiana, New Mexico, and California. 
The number from this latter source was at the time of the several admissions 
comparatively insignificant ; that from Louisiana being 77,000 ; from Flo- 
rida, 10,000 ; and from New Mexico and California, 60,000. The increase 
from this source, by propagation, however, has been such as to constitute a 
very considerable item in th§ present population returns. One remarkable 
feature attending the admission of the inhabitants of Louisiana and of the 
French west of the Mississippi by the extension of the western boundary 
of the Union, has been the large number of intermarriages between the 
French population, and those descended from an English ancestry, born in 
the Atlantic States. 

These geographical divisions into sea-coast, mountain, and inland- 
valley regions, exercise a considerable influence over the progress of popu- 
lation, but much less than those of high and low latitudes and the differences 
in social position which obtain in the different States of the Union. 

In estimating the movements of population in this country, the con- 
federate character of the government must never be lost sight of The 
power reserved by each State to enact its own laws, has given to each part 
of the Union an individuality which is marked and important. The social 
influences surrounding the inhabitants of two neighboring States, as Massa- 
chusetts and Connecticut, or Virginia and Maryland, may not be very dif- 
ferent, but they are widely so between remote parts of the Union. 

The stern and rigid habits of the New England Puritans — the substan- 
tial and frugal customs of the Hollanders who colonized New York — the 
careful thrift of the Quakers of Pennsylvania — the generous and hospitable 



PROBABLE FUTURE INCREASE. 23 

character of the early settlers of Maryland — and the careless and noble traits 
of the gay cavaliers who settled Virginia, are still manifest among their 
descendants, modifying their character and affecting, in a very decided 
manner, the population of their respective States. 

These observations apply more especially to the States which skirt the 
Atlantic, yet they are not without force in those in the great valley of the 
Mississippi. The migration from State to State has had some influence on 
the population of every State, and in some instances, as that of New York, 
has effected so decided a change, as greatly to modify their early charac- 
teristics. 

" Some reflections upon the fiiture growth of the population of the 
Union, will not be improper in this place. The facts embraced in the 
census show a regular diminution in the ratio of total as well as of natural 
increase from decade to decade, up to 1840, making corrections for the 
admission of new territory, and the shorter period than ten years included 
between the census of 1820 and 1830. From the declining per cent, of 
females and young children, Professor Tucker argues that the natural 
increase of the population is inversely as its density in all of the States, 
and that the increase of the whole population, for the decades after 1840, 
would be 32; 31.3; 30.5; 29.6; 28.6; 27.5 per cent. Should emigra- 
tion, however, remain as it was then, or be but slightly increased from year 
to year, the series, he supposed, would be 31.8 ; 30.9; 30 ; 29 ; 27.9 ; 26.8 
per cent. The results upon either series will be here shown, but upon both 
they fall greatly short of the fact for 1850. The ratio from 1840 to 1850 
increased over three per cent., instead of declining as. before from the pre- 
vious decade, a result not to be accounted for by the admission of Cali- 
fornia, New Mexico, &c. 



24 UNCERTAINTY OF STATISTICS. 

Population Population 

Years. on first series. on second series. 

1850 22,400,000 22,000,000 

1860 29,400,000 28,800,000 

1870 38,300,000 36,500,000 

1880 49,600,000 46,500,000 

1890 63,000,000 59,800,000 

, 1900 80,000,000 74,000,000." 

\_Coinpend. U. S. Census, 1850,^. 130.] 

This table is based upon the assumption of an increase of population 
in a geometrical ratio, without an adequate compensation for those causes 
which are always operating to increase or diminish this ratio, and 
which are so variable in their character as to elude all fixed geometrical 
rules. 

Could a population be found in which the increase arose solely from 
births and the decrease of deaths, entirely unaffected by migration, it would 
be found that the excess of births above that of deaths in each year, would 
be in a fixed ratio to the number living at the beginning of the year, which 
progression, with a knowledge of the circumstances affecting the rate of 
mortality, might be determined ; for, if the number of births above that of 
the deaths, bore an exact ratio to the population living, at any one fixed 
period, the increase could be measured and its results determined by a pro- 
cess in geometrical progression. 

But as there is no country, and probably no part of a country, where 
the population has remained for any length of time so stationary as to be 
unaffected by migration, it follows, that in order to make a tolerably near 
approach to the ratio of increase, the effect of this migration must be taken 
into consideration ; and as it is extremely dif&cult to determine with any 
degree of precision, either the numbers or the ages of those who enter or 
depart, so it is proportionably difficult to fix the rate of increase or decrease 
for any length of time dependant upon their absence or presence. 



MORTALITY RETURNS. 



25 



Besides, all the facts upon which these tables of the future progress of 
population are based, have been taken from the movements of the 
living ; whereas, in order to ascertain with any exactness the probable 
increasing population, it is necessary to determine the numbers and the 
ages of those who die, as well as of those who survive. The seventh 
census is the only one that has attempted to supply this last element of 
calculation. 

These returns show an aggregate of 320,023 deaths for the year begin- 
ning June 1st, 1849,^ and ending June 1st, 1850, or one death to every 
72.5 inhabitants. The report itself, in estimating the value to be attached 
to these statistics, supposes that one-fourth of the whole number of deaths 
which have occurred in the Union during the period of one year prior to the 
enumeration of 1850, have not been reported. Assuming this as the error, 
the whole number of deaths reported and not reported would be 400,028, 
or one death to 58 inhabitants. 

The average mortality of the English population for the five years, 
1838-42, was 2.207 per cent, or nearly one in forty-five. The following- 
table from the sixth report of the Registrar-General, gives in a condensed 
form, the rates of mortality of several of the principal European States, 
including England. The enumeration in this latter country being confined 
to England and Wales, exhibits a much more favorable standard than it 
would if Ireland and Scotland were included. 





Tear. 


Population. 


ANNDAL 


DEATHS. 


ANNUAL MOKTAUTT, 




Tear. 


Number. 


Per Cent. 


Living to 1 
Deatli. 


England 


1841 
1841 
1840 
1840 
1842 


15,92'7,86'7 
34,213,929 
14,928,501 
21,571,594 
49,525,420 


1838-42 
1838-42 
1838-41 
1839-42 
1842 


346,905 
816,840 
392,349 
651,239 
1,856,138 


2.207 
2.397 
2.658 
2.995 
3.590 


45 


France 


42 


Prussia 


38 




83 


Russia 


28 







— [6iA Registrar- Getieral's Heport, p. xxxix. 



26 MORTALITY STATISTICS CORRECTED 

A comparison of the mortuary records of the United States, with those 
of the European countries above enumerated, would lead to the belief that 
a much larger number of unenumerated deaths had occurred than is pre- 
sumed by the census reports. Were the arbitrary assumption to be made 
that the number of unrecorded deaths was equal to one-half, instead of 
one-fourth, of those recorded, the aggregate number would be 480,080, or 
one death to 48.31 of the living, which produces a result much more in 
accordance with those of other countries in which reliable mortuary statis- 
tics are kept, than the hypothesis of the census report ; and for this reason, 
and for this alone, is entitled to more confidence. 

Prof Tucker, in his ingenious observations upon the probabilities of 
life in the United States, has deduced the relative number of deaths, from 
the returns of the living, with results somewhat corresponding to those just 
given. 

" The details of the census of 1850," remarks Prof Tucker, " compared 
with those of the census of 1840, fortunately afford us materials for making 
this interesting estimate with a near approximation to the truth, as we shall 
thus see. 

" It is clear that the difference between the whole population of 1840, 
and the part of the population of 1850 over ten years of age, would show 
the number of deaths in ten years, if the country had neither emigration 
nor immigration. The emigration, however, is insignificant, and the number 
of immigrants with their increase, we have now the means of ascertaining. 
But as our numbers in 1850 were augmented by the accession of Texas, 
New Mexico, and California, as well as by immigration, the population thus 
acquired must also be deducted. Having found the mortality of the whole 
population of 1840, that of those who have since come into existence, 
and are of course under ten in 1850, will be the subject of separate esti- 
mate, for which the census also furnishes materials. Let us now see the 
result : — • 



BY RETURNS OF THE LIVING. 



2T 



Of the whole population of 1850 23,191,877 

The whole number under ten is 6,730,044 

The number over ten is 16,461,832 

" To ascertain the number of immigrants to be deducted from the 
16,461,832, we must ascertain — 1. The number of immigrants under ten on 
the 1st of June, 1850. 2. The number over ten who had died between 
their arrival and June, 1850. These numbers are exhibited in the fol- 
lowing table : — * 





Whole No. of 
immigrants. 


No. of children 

under ten, 

when they 

arrived. 


No. of 

years to 

June, 

1850. 


No. of «hild. 

ren under 

ten, June 1, 

1850. 


No. of 
deaths, to 
June 1, 

1S60. 


No. over 

ten, 
June 1, 

1850. 


1840-1 


83,504 
101,107 
75,159 
74,607 
102,416 
147,051 
220,882 
296,387 
296,988 
223,984 


12,825 
15,166 
11,274 
11,190 
15,362 
22,057 
33,027 
44,450 
44,640 
33,597 


94 
84 

64 
54 
44 
34 
24 

14. 
4 


642 

2,276 

2,817 

3,916 

6,912 

12,131 

20,867 

24,760 

37,783 

22,270 


10,110 
11,105 
7,299 
6,182 
7,068 
8.167 
9,384 
9,135 
5,215 
2,357 


72,762 


1841-2 


87,727 


1842-3 


64,043 


1843-4 


65,509 


1844-6 


88,435 


1845-6 


126,753 


1846-7 


190,631 


1847-8 


262,492 


1848-9 


253,940 


1849-50 


199,357 








1,622,034 


243,488 




134,373 


76,022 


1,411,639 



" If, then, we deduct from the 16,461,832, the population of 1850 over 
ten years of age, the number of emigrants over that age equal to 1,411,639, 
and also the number over ten in the newly acquired territories of Texas, 
&c., which by computation is about 135,000, the difference will be 
14,915,193, which is the number of the survivors of the population of 
June 1, 1840. As this population was 17,069,453, a deduction of the 
14,915,193 survivors shows the number of deaths in ten years to have been 
2,154,258, averaging 215,425.8 a year. As in computing the rate of mor- 



* In the computation of deaths contained in th« abore table, I have, with some hesitation, allowed a 
Bom«what greater mortality than is warranted in the Carlisle life tables, those of Quetelet, and others, since I 
have assumed one-tenth of the children of the immigrants to be under one year, which probably greatly over- 
rates their number at an age when the rate of mortality is far greater than at any other age. 



28 MORTALITY STATISTICS CORRECTED 

tality the deaths are compared with numbers beginning with 17,069,453, 
and gradually descending through the ten years to 14,915,193, we must 
take the medium between those numbers, which is 15,992,324. Now, if 
this number be divided by the annual deaths, 215,425.8, it will show the 
average annual mortality to be 1 in 74.2 in that part of the population 
which is over ten years of age. 

" To ascertain the mortality of those under ten, our data are somewhat 
less precise and satisfactory. Two modes of making the estimate present 
themselves, which lead to different results ; and when we shall have more 
full and reliable data than at present, truth will probably be found to lie 
between them. 

" First. — If we assume that the mortality of the children under ten is 
the same in the United States as in France, according to their respective 
numbers — and there is no obvious reason why it should be materially dif- 
ferent — then, according to the tables which we owe to the patient labors of 
Heuschling, the number of deaths of the children under ten in the United 
States, in 1850, was 224,868, exclusive of the children of immigrants be- 
tween 1840 and 1850. If to this number we add the deaths of the popu- 
lation over ten, 215,425, we have 440,293 for the whole number of deaths 
in 1850, which exhibits a mortality of 1 in 43.4. 

" Secondly. — If, however, we adopt the unsatisfactory data afforded by 
the seventh census, then we may thus estimate the average mortality. 
According to that census, the number of white and free colored children 
who died under one year of age, was 43,055, which it must be recollected 
included the children of immigrants, with the increase of the population 
generally, for the year 1850. Let us deduct ten per cent, for this portion ; 
for, though the children of immigrants appear not to have exceeded an 
11th or 12th of that class, yet, in consideration of the admitted greater 



BY RETURNS OF THE LIVING. 29 

mortality, both of immigrants and their children, 10 per cent, does not seem 
too much for their proportion of deaths. If to the number, thus reduced 
to 38,749, we add the number of slaves who die at that early age, 10,481, 
we shall have 49,230 deaths of children in the first year after their birth, 

" What is the number for the other nine years ? It may be approx- 
imated in this way. The whole number of white persons from 5 to 10 years 
of age, and fi'om 10 to 15, is 5,106,257, one-tenth of which may be pre- 
sumed to give the number of those whose age is about ten. If one-tenth of 
this tenth be deducted (for the children of immigrants,) the remainder, 
459,563, will exhibit the number of children ten years old in 1850, of the 
population of 1840. 

" Their annual number of deaths we will assume to be 1 in 120, which 
assumes a somewhat greater mortality than is estimated at this period of 
life by the most approved life tables of Europe. This would be 3,998.7 for 
the annual deaths of the whites of 10 years of age, and 852.2 for those of 
the colored race, in all 4,852. But as there were 49,230 deaths of both 
classes in the first year of the decade, and 4,852 in the last, the mean — 
27,041 — gives us the annual average deaths of one-tenth of the children 
under 10, or 270,410 for the whole number. To this, if we add 215,425 for 
the deaths of persons over ten, we shall have 485,836 for the annual deaths 
of the population of 1840, excluding all accessions from foreign sources. 

The population of 1850, with that exclusion, is as follows : — 

Gross amount 23,191,876 

From which deduct the immigrants, with their increase, at 
the rate of 3 per cent, per annum from the time of their 

arrival 1,840,233 

Accession from Texas, &c. . ., 200,000 

2,040,233 

21,151,643 



30 ANNUAL MORTALITY. 

" The mean between this number and the 17,069,453, the population 
of 1840, is 19,110,548, which, divided by 485,836, the total number of 
annual deaths, we have an average mortality in the year of 39.3 for the 
whole population, white and colored, bond and free." 

These deductions are certainly curious, and in the absence of more 
positive elements of calculation, are entitled to respectful consideration. 
The number of deaths, as made apparent by the mortality returns, is evi- 
dently under-estimated : the extent of the error can only be approximated by 
the assumption of such data as are supplied by the returns of the living ; and 
although the conclusions derived from this source are by no means beyond 
question, yet they furnish the best means of correcting the error, at the dis- 
posal of the philosophic enquirer. 



AGES OF POPULATION. 31 



CHAPTER III. 



PRODUCTIVE CAPACITY OF POPULATION. 



The extreme rapidity with which the population of this country has 
increased, has led to the adoption of the popular belief, that because its per- 
centage of increase has exceeded that of any other country, it is conse- 
quently the most healthy of all others. 

Eminent statisticians, and particularly those of other countries, deducing 
their results from the living alone, have arrived at a different conclusion. 
Mr. Chadwick, in his work on the "Pressure and Progress of the Causes of 
Mortality among Different Classes of the Community," published in 1844, 
remarks : — 

" Notwithstanding the earlier marriages, and the extent of emigration, 
and the general increase of the population, the whole circumstances appear 
to me to prove this to be the case of a population depressed to a low 
age, chiefly by the greater proportionate pressure of the causes of disease 
and premature mortality. The proportionate numbers at each interval of 
age, in every 10,000 of the two populations, are as follows : — 

IlDited States of America. England and Wales. 

IJnder 5 y«ar3 lUi 1324 

5 and under 10 1417 1197 

10 " 15 1210 1089 

15 " 20 1091 997 

20 " 30 1816 1780 



32 



YOUTHFUL CHARACTER OF POPULATION. 



30 


and under 40 


40 


" 50 


50 


" 60 


60 


70 


70 


" 80 


80 


" 90 


90 and upwards 



Average age of all the living 



Statea of America. 

1160 


England and Wales. 
1289 


732 


959 


436 


645 


245 


440 


113 


216 


32 


59 


4 


5 




10,000 

ars 2 months. 


10,000 
26 years 7 months 



" Here it may be observed, that whilst in England there are 5025 per- 
sons between 15 and 50, who have 3610 children or persons under 15 ; in 
America there are 4789 persons living between 15 and 50 years of age, who 
have 4371 children dependent upon them. In England there are in every 
ten thousand persons 1365 who have obtained above 50 years' experience ; 
in America there are only 830. 

" The moral consequences of the predominance of the young and pas- 
sionate in the American community, are attested by observers to be such 
as have already been described in the General Sanatory Report as charac- 
teristic of those crowded, filthy, and badly administered districts in Eng- 
land, where the average duration of life is short, the proportion of the very 
young great, and the adult generation transient. 

" The difference does not arise solely from the greater proportion of 
children arising from a greater increase of population, though that is to 
some extent consistent with what has been proved to be the effect of a 
severe general mortality ; the effects of the common cause of depression is 
observable at each interval of age ; the adult population in America is 
younger than in England, and if the causes of early death were to remain 
the same, it may be confidently predicted that the American population 
would remain young for centuries. 



IN THE UNITED STATES. 33 

Years. Months. 

The average age of all alive above 15 in America is 33 6 

The average age of all alive above 15 years in England and 

Wales is 3Y 5 

The average age of all above 20 years in America is 37 7 

In the whole of England the average of all above 20 years is 41 1." 

The average age of the vrhole population, according to the census of 
1840, is correctly given by Mr. Chadwick. The average age of the white 
population is 22.71 years. The returns of 1850 shovr an increase of the 
aggregate age, from Mr. Chadwick's estimate, from 22.16, to that of 22.89 
years, and of the white population from 22.71 to 23.10, which, as compared 
with the previous census, furnishes a highly favorable result : — 

Classes. Average age. 

Whites 23.10 

Free colored 24.54 

Slaves 21.35 

Aggregate 22.89 

A country whose population is so distributed that the larger proportion 
of its members are of an age which fits them for active employments, is 
placed under circumstances the most favorable for advancement. Mr. 
Shattuck has proposed a division of society into three classes, for the pur- 
pose of determining the number of those fitted for employment, and those 
which are not — those under fifteen years of age he denominates the depend- 
ant class, because dependant upon others for support ; those between fifteen 
and sixty he calls the productive class, because they are in the full possession 
of their energies, and competent not only to produce a sufficiency for them- 
selves, but likewise for those who are dependant upon them ; those above 
sixty he defines as the aged class. With the view of ascertaining the con- 
4 



34 



PROPORTION OF PRODUCTIVE 



dition of the population as affected by this standard, the following table has 
been constructed : — 





Whites. 


Free Colored. 


Slaves. 


Aggregate. 




Number. 


Ratio 
per ct. 


Number. 


Ratio 
per ct. 


Number. 


Ratio 
per ct. 


Number. 


Ratio 
per ct. 


15 years and under 


8,002,715 

10,720,175 

819,871 

10,307 


40.93 

54.83 

4.19 

.05 


171,181 

238,859 

24,169 

286 


39.40 

54.97 

5.56 

.07 


1,455,774 

1,630,095 

114,752 

3,692 


45.43 

50.87 

3.68 

.12 


9,629,670 

12,.589,129 

958,792 

14,285 


41.52 


Over 15 and under 60 


54.28 
4.14 




.06 






Totals 


19,553,068 


100.00 


434,495 


100.00 


3,204,313 


100.00 


23.191,876 


100.00 







In this, as in the preceding table, an advance in the elements of pro- 
ductiveness are manifest. The productive class of the white population in 
1830, was 51.01 per cent., and the burdensome, composed of the young and 
the aged, 48.99 per cent. In 1840, the productive class was 52.35, and the 
burdensome, 47.65 per cent. ; and in 1850, the former class had increased 
to 54.83 per cent., while the latter had declined to 45.17 per cent, 
being an increase of 2.48 per cent, in the productive capacity of the 
whole population, and a corresponding decline in the ratio of those 
requiring support. The productive class in England is 56.70 per cent, of 
the population ; and in Sweden, 56.93 per cent., being about two per cent, 
higher than in the United States. 

It is a question whether a larger amount of the results of produc- 
tiveness may not be evolved, with a less per centage of productive capacity, 
numerically, for a long consecutive period of years in the United States 
than in England or Sweden. In both of these countries, as well as in most 
others, except this, upon which extensive observations have been made, the 
density of population is such as to require a large proportion of the fruits 
of the earth garnered each year to maintain the population. 

When from any cause the crops fall greatly short of their usual amount, 
much distress is produced among the laboring population, who depend for 



AND BURDENSOME CLASSES. 35 

their daily supply of food, upon the earnings of their daily labor. The 
proportion which the rate of wages bears to the necessaries of life being 
largely diminished by the exaltation of the prices of food, occasioned by 
the scarcity, the amount of food consumed by the laboring classes is les- 
sened in quantity, and not unfrequently deteriorated in quality. 

The effect of a diminished supply of food is to lessen the capacity for 
labor, and to induce disease. It is consequently found that dysentery, 
fever, and frequently severe epidemics, are the constant attendants upon 
short crops in such communities as reside in the more populous countries of 
the globe. 

The failure of the potato crop in Ireland in 1846 and 1847, was fol- 
lowed by one of the most severe visitations of typhus fever which has 
ever desolated that country. 

The Prussian Government, whose registration system is so perfect, as to 
give a very accurate idea of the movement of its inhabitants, became so 
much alarmed at the effect of the diminished crop of 1855, as to induce 
it to order a series of experiments to be made upon Indian Corn, as an 
article of food, for its humbler population, in the event of the deficiency 
amounting to a serious inconvenience. This provident act was induced by 
a full knowledge of the baneful effects of short crops as revealed by the 
registration system. 

The large amount of land under cultivation in the United States, and 
the abundant harvests invariably secured, furnish to each individual a 
quantity of food exceeding threefold in amount that used by the average 
laboring classes on the continent of Europe, and places all thought of a small 
supply out of the question. 

With the exception of some few employments in the more populous 
cities, labor is always in demand at such remunerative wages as to admit of 
the purchase of nutritious food, not only in quantities sufficient to sustain 



36 RELATIVE MEANS OF SUBSISTENCE. 

life, but to gratify the cravings of tlie most inordinate appetite. The artizan 
in town, and the laborer in the country, are supplied each day with a sub- 
stantial repast of animal and vegetable food. This is a matter of universal 
occurrence, and extends to every section of the country, and with but few 
exceptions to each department of industry. These exceptions are to be 
found principally among the females in populous cities, who gain their live- 
lihood by .plain sewing, the manufacture of cheap clothing, and like unre- 
munerative occupations. 

" The standard of comfort for the laboring class is much higher here 
than it is in England, so far as it concerns the consumption of animal food, 
in consequence of the peculiar circumstances of this country, where the hus- 
bandry and useful arts of a cultivated people are conjoined with the thin 
population of a rude one. In every part of Europe, population and the arts 
have advanced at the same rate ; and the ascertained slowness of the rate 
supposes straitened means of subsistence in every stage of the progress. 
This is conclusively proved, as to England, by the fact that her population, 
which, in 1377, had been 2,350,000, had increased in 1800, that is, in 423 
years, only to 8,872,980 ; since nothing but great difficulty in obtaining the 
means of subsistence, and extreme discomfort with the great mass of the 
people, could have retarded the period of duplication with our progenitors 
to upwards of two hundred years."* 

That a population supplied with an abundance of substantial food, is 
competent to perform a greater amount of labor than a similar population, 
but illy provided for in this particular, is evident. What is the direct effect 
upon the physical energies of the population of the United States, produced 
by this condition of things, can only be ascertained by an accumulation of 
statistical evidence. 

» Tucker's Progress of the United States, p. 112. 



EMPLOYED AND IDLE CLASSES. 37 

The employments of the industrial classes furnish a tolerably fair 
indication of the available labor of a population. With this view, the fol- 
lowing summary of the pursuits of the population of the United States 
is given : — 

" Of the free population in 1850, amounting to 19,987,563, the number 
of males above fifteen years of age who were employed in diiferent branches 
of industry was 5,371,876. Supposing the number of females, who in their 
appropriate employments are at least as industrious as the males, to be equal, 
then the industrious class of both sexes above fifteen amount to 10,743,562. 
The difference between this number and that of the whole free population 
is 9,243,811. If from this residue we deduct the tenants of the poor-houses, 
hospitals, jails, and penitentiaries, the superannuated and the children under 
fifteen, all of whom are either too young to work, are already employed or 
qualifying themselves for future employment, the remainder, constituting 
the voluntary idle and unproductive class, would be an inconsiderable por- 
tion of the community, as may be thus seen : — 

"Whole number, after deducting the working classes 9,243,811 

Children under 15 by the census 8,173,896 

Persons over seventy by the same 308,686 

Paupers by the same 50,352 

In hospitals for the insane, blind, &c., by the same 60,994 

In State prisons and penitentiaries, by the same 5,646 

In jails and houses of correction Y,444 

8,597,018 

Whole number of idle class 646,793 

" It would thus seem that the whole number of the idle class of both 
sexes between the ages of fifteen and seventy is less than 3 per cent., or one 
person in thirty-three of the free population ; and though the labor to which 



38 CHAEACTER OF OCCUPATION. 

man is inevitably destined is occasionally excessive or irksome, yet in the 
main his bread is sweetened as well as moistened by the sweat with which 
it is earned : — * 

Of these, there are engaged in — 

1. Mental pursuits 179,032 or 3 per cent. 

2. Producers 2,544,777 " 42 " 

3. Manufacturers 1,229,607 " 24 " 

4. Commercial pursuits 316,053 " 6 " 

5. Miscellaneous 1,102,422 " 19 " 

5,371,876 100 " 
* Ibid Appendix, p. 44. 



EMIGRATION, 



39 



CHAPTER IV. 



EMIGRATION. 



The effect of emigration upon tlie population of the United States is 
an important one, and requires especial consideration. The entire foreign 
population in 1850 was 2,210,839, and its ratio to the white and free 
colored population, 11.06 per cent., which is thus distributed : — 



States and Territories. 


Total Foreign. 


Per ct. of foreign 
to white and free 
col'd population. 


States and Ten-itories. 


Total Foreign. 


Per ct. of foreign 
to white and free 
col'd population. 




7,638 

1,628 

22,358 

4,967 

37,473 

6,211 

2,757 

5,907 

110,593 

54,426 

21,232 

29,189 

66,413 

31,456 

53,288 

160,909 

64,852 

4,958 

72,474 


1.78 

1.00 

24.15 

10.36 

10.11 

6.84 

5.73 

1.13 

12.99 

5.51 

11.05 

3.78 

24.33 

5.39 

10.82 

16.18 

13.79 

1.67 

12.19 


New Hampshire 

New Jersey 

New York 


13,571 

68,364 

651,801 

2,524 

218,512 

294,871 

23,111 

8,662 

5,740 

16,774 

32,831 

22,394 

106,695 

2,048 

2,063 

1,159 

1,990 


4.27 


Arkansas , 


11.93 




21.04 


Columbia, District of . . . , 


North Carolina 

Ohio 


.43 
11.03 




Pennsylvania 


12.75 


Florida 


Rhode Island 

South Carolina 


16.66 


Georgia 


3.06 




.75 


Indiana. , 


Texas 


10.86 


Iowa . . . 


Vermont 


10.45 


Ken tuck V 


"Virginia 


2.36 






34.94 




[■Minnesota.... 
Terri- J New Mexico . 
lories. | Oregon 

[Utah 

Total 


33.70 


Maryland 


3.f5 


Massachusetts 


8.72 




17.53 






Missouri 


2,210,839 


11.06 









Of these, 961,719 were born in Ireland; 278,675 in England; 70,550 
in Scotland; 29,868 in Wales; 147,711 in British America; 54,069 in 
France ; 10,549 in Prussia ; 573,225 in the rest of Germany ; 946 in Aus- 
tria ; 13,358 in Switzerland ; 12,678 in Norway ; 9,848 in Holland; 3,559 
in Sweden; 3,113 in Spain; 3,645 in Italy; 5,772 in the West Indies; 
1,638 in Denmark ; 1,313 in Belgium ; 1,414 in Russia ; 1,274 in Portugal ; 



40 



EFFECT OF EMIGRATION. 



785 in China; 585 in the Sandwich Islands; 13,317 in Mexico ; and 1,543 
in South America. From this it would appear that the British subjects, 
born either in Great Britain, Ireland, or British America, who had emi- 
grated to the United States, numbered 1,488,523, and constitute two-thirds 
of the whole foreign-born population. 

In the selection of their residence, the immigrants have manifested a 
decided preference for some sections of country over others ; thus, while in 
the Middle States they constitute one-fifth of the population, and in the 
Northern and Eastern a little less than one-eighth, their ratio in the South- 
western is diminished to one-twentieth, and in the Southern States to one- 
fiftieth of the whole population. 

The two States least affected by foreign emigration are North Carolina 
and Tennessee ; the whole number in the former State being 2,524, and 
constituting but forty-three hundredths of one per cent, of the entire popu- 
lation ; and in the latter 5,740, and making three-fourths of one per cent, of 
the whole number of inhabitants. In South Carolina, the number of foreign 
inhabitants is 8,662, and bears a ratio of 3.06 per cent, to the entire popu- 
lation. Of these, 4,643 reside in the city of Charleston, and 4019 in the 
rural districts, The foreign population of Charleston constitutes 21,28 per 
cent, of the whole. 

Indeed, there appears to be a marked desire on the part of immi- 
grants to select populous cities, rather than rural districts, as a place of 
residence. The annexed table, showing the proportion of Irish, German 
and Prussian immigrants residing in the large cities, will develope this 
proposition : 



1850. 


In United States. 


In large cities. 


Ratio per ct. to wliole. 


Irisb 


961,719 

683,774 


382,402 
212,559 


39.76 




36.43 







CONDITION OF IMMIGRANTS. 



41 



The annexed exhibit of the native and foreign population of the fol- 
lowing European States, shows how much more decided the effect of this 
element is in this country than in Europe : — 



Great Britain and the islands in the British seas. . 

France 

Denmark 

Sardinia 

Holland 

Belgium 



Census. 



1851 
1851 
1851 
1848 
1849 
1846 



Whole 
Pcpulation. 



20,959,477 
35,78?,170 
1,407,747 
4,918,855 
3,056,879 
4,337,196 



Foreign 
Population. 



Per ct. of Foreign 
Population. 



56,665 
378,563 
13,042 
26,465 
70,865 
76.479 



0.27 
1.06 
0.43 
0.54 
2.32 
1.76 



Much the largest proportion of emigrants who arrive in the United 
States are in the most humble circumstances, frequently with constitutions 
shattered by privation, and with slender means to provide for themselves 
even the most simple necessaries of life. From early association, aided, 
perhaps, by the necessity of the moment, they are accustomed to herd 
together (for they cannot be said to live) in large numbers, in those parts 
of our populous seaports where rooms are less expensive, and a residence is 
least desirable. 

Surrounded by all the elements of disease which abound in the densely 
crowded and illy ventilated portions of populous places, the victims of pre- 
vious privation, and of present want, it might naturally be inferred that 
the mortality among them would be very great. It unfortunately happens, 
however, that few bills of mortality are kept in such a manner as to afford 
a satisfactory solution to this question. Those of New York, and some of 
the other cities, give the nativity of the persons deceased, and in this 
manner some clue may be had to the ratio of deaths among the adult 
population. The mortality returns of Boston and Providence show, that 
that the mortality among the offspring of the immigrant population, who 

inhabit large cities, particularly in the earliest period of life, is very great, 
5 



42 CONDITION OF IMMIGRANTS, 

and far exceeds that whicti occurs among the native population. Admitting 
an equality between the immigrant and native population in all other circum- 
stances, than that of the density of their numbers, and the disposition of the 
former to crovd themselves into an inconceivably small space, and there is 
left in this source alone a wide disproportion as to the chances of life against 
the immigrant ; for, under like circumstances, the more closely individuals 
are congregated together, either in their habitations or their persons, the 
greater is the danger of disease, and the less the probabilities of life. The 
annexed extract from the North American Review, giving a description of 
a certain district in Boston, is corroborative of these views : — 

" The district selected for comparison comprises Broad, Cove, and Sea 
streets. These streets are situated near the wharves. They are built prin- 
cipally upon made land, and have numerous blind alleys leading from them. 
The streets and alleys are badly drained^ and crowded with an overflowing 
population. A large number of the houses have no means of sewerage 
whatever, and all their refuse of every description stagnates about the yards, 
spreading on every side poisonous exhalations, laden with disease and 
death. A majority of the houses contain several families, and some of them 
have no less than nine or ten. Even the cellars of the houses are often 
inhabited, and in some instances one cellar leads to another, and this to a 
third, a sort of dungeon, all inhabited by human beings of both sexes and 
every age. The population of these three streets is 2813, of whom 2738 
are foreigners and only T5 Americans. The mortality was one m 17.6 of 
the 2^o]pulation, or 5.65 per cent., and this was a year (1850) remarkable 
for its healthiness. What it would have been in a sickly year, we dare not 
conjecture. 

" We were at first inclined to regard these figures as an exaggeration," 
adds the above writer. " We could not believe that a portion of Boston is 



AT PRESENT AND HERETOFORE. 43 

annually almost decimated of its population. But a careful re-examination 
has confirmed the accuracy of the statement."* 

Notwithstanding these evils, the immigrant is generally much better 
provided for upon his arrival in the United States at the present time than 
formerly. 

" The sufferings attendant on immigration to America are believed to be 
now much less than they were in the earlier periods of its history. The fa- 
cilities and safety of navigating the ocean have been vastly increased since 
the first settlement of the country. This continent and the European have, 
by the rapidity, frequency and regularity of communication, been compara- 
tively made one country. Now-a-days, the European emigrants, as soon as 
they arrive at these shores, have stopping places filled with an abundance 
of the necessaries of life ; and when want or sickness befal them, as is often 
the case, the charitable institutions are opened to soothe their sufferings, and 
often the hand of individual charity is extended to them in a manner to 
touch their hearts with emotions of gratitude. But in the time of our fathers, 
no white man welcomed their coming, no smiling villages cheered their 
hearts, and, as they advanced to the places of their settlement, they found 
nothing but a wilderness and wild beasts, and what was often worse than 
wild beasts — the savages. And now the emigrant, if he plants himself down 
in the wild lands of America, has the conveniences of an easy transportation, 
and is furnished at every step of his path with an abundance flowing from a 
bountiful soil and laid up by an industrious and frugal people. We have 
not the means at hand of showing distinctly and exactly the comparative 
distresses; but if the subject were fuljy inquired into, we have no doubt but 
that the sufferings and mortality of immigrants to America are now very 
much less than they were formerly ; and we regard this as one of the evi- 
dences of improvement in the condition of mankind, "f 

* North Am. Rev., No. OLII., July, 1851, pp. 121-2. t Chiokering's Immigration, p. 53. 



44 CONDITION OF IMMIGRANTS. 

What will be the ultimate moral and physical effect of this immense 
tide of emigration none can determine. Mr. Chickering thus sums up his 
reasoning concerning it : — 

" This migration of masses, numbering of late years more than one 
hundred thousand annually, now nearly three hundred thousand annually, 
not in the warlike spirit of the Goths and Vandals who overran the Roman 
empire, and destroyed the monuments of art, and the evidences of civiliza- 
tion, but in the spirit of peace, anxious to provide for themselves and their 
children the necessaries of life, and apparently ordained by Providence to 
relieve the countries of the old world and to serve great purposes of good 
to mankind, — ^is one of the most interesting spectacles the world ever saw. 
This movement is to go on till the western continent is filled with inhabi- 
tants. The future destiny of these States none can tell ; every accession of 
new comers introduces new elements of moral and political power into the 
community, besides the insensible changes which are constantly taking place. 
If past experience has shown the result of this immigration to America to 
have been a modification of our institutions and manners from year to year, 
do not the signs of the times indicate some danger of important changes 
in the very structure of society, as the current becomes more and more 
swollen in consequence of the facilitated means of conveyance, and of the 
multiplied necessities of emigrating." 



RELATIVE PROPORTION OF BIRTHS. 



45 



CHAPTER V. 



BIRTHS. 



The number of births according to the census returns for 1850, occur- 
ring among the white and free colored population for the year preceding 
the enumeration was 548,837, being 2.75 to every 100 persons, distributed 
as follows : 



states and Territories. 


Births. 


Ratio per cent. 


States and Territories. 


Births. 


Ratio per cent. 




12,265 

5,483 

273 

1,248 

7,646 

2,495 

1,322 

15,239 

26,681 

32,296 

6,099 

23,805 

7,292 

13,995 

14,036 

23,192 

10,898 

8.687 

19,632 


2.86 
3.36 
0.29 
2.60 
2.06 
2.80 
2.75 
2.90 
3.13 
3.27 
3.17 
3.09 
2.67 
2.40 
2.85 
2.33 
2.74 
2.93 
3.30 


New Hampshire 


6,111 

13,556 

76,337 

16,648 

56,884 

64,331 

3,610 

6,607 

23,090 

4,765 

6,594 

25,153 

10,424 

168 

1,233 

310 

432 


1.92 




2.77 




New York 


2.46 


Columbia, District of . . . . 
Connecticut • 


North Caroliaa 

Ohio 


2.87 
2.87 




Pennsylvania 

Rhode Island 

South Carolina 

Tennessee 


2.78 


Florida 


2.45 


Georgia. 


2.33 


Illinois 


3.02 




Texas 


3.09 






2.10 


Kentucky 


Virginia , , , . . 


2.65 


XiOuisiana 


Wisconsin 


3.41 • 




") Minnesota . . . 
Terri- (New Mexico., 
tories. f Oregon 

J Utah 

Total 


2.77 


Maryland 


2.00 


Massachusetts. .■ 


2.33 




3.80 






MiBSOuri 


548,837 


2.75 









This table exhibits a great disparity in the productiveness of the dif- 
ferent populations of the various States. While in the Territory of Utah, 
under the influence of its peculiar institutions, the ratio is 3.80 per cent., 
in California it dwindles down to the insignificant one of 0.29 per cent. 

In this connection, the proportion which the females bear to the males. 



46 



RELATIVE PROPORTION OF BIRTHS 



and the ages of the former, is important. These proportions are here 
given. For every hundred males there are in the different States, of the 
ages mentioned, the following number of females : — 



States and Territories. 


20 and un- 
der 30. 


80 and un- 
der 40. 


40 and un- 
der 50. 


States and Territories. 


20 and un- 
der 80. 


30 and un- 
der 40. 


40 and un- 
der 50. 


^labamflF 


98.2 

87.1 

3.5 

112.1 
99.4 
99.7 
78.0 
97.0 
88.8 
92.6 
93.6 
• 92.5 
79.9 
93.8 
95.0 

106.4 
89.7 
86.9 


84.6 
73.8 
4.5 
97.0 
96.7 
97.3 
66.9 
90.9 
79.1 
86.7 
76.7 
85.2 
54.8 
93.5 
90.5 
96.5 
81.9 
74.5 


85.8 
74.3 
6.0 
99.1 
101.6 
94.9 
67.9 
92.4 
80.6 
90.9 
76.6 
88.7 
64.4 
94.9 
92.0 
99.8 
76.2 
77.1 


Missouri 

New Hampshire 

New Jersey 


85.7 

102 5 

102.2 

99.8 

107.8 

94.1 

98.7 

103.6 

101.5 

100.7 

74.8 

93.4 

100.0 

82.5 

48.9 

99.1 

S3. 7 

70.4 


75.0 
103.3 
95.5 
91.1 
108.2 
88.8 
92.3 
98.6 
98.3 
98.4 
60.6 
97.4 
97.0 
71.4 
84.8 
80.8 
40.6 
78.6 


77.1 




103.8 


California 


93.9 


Columbia, District of. . . 


New York 


88.9 


North Carolina 

Ohio 


107.9 




87.4 


'Klm*if]fl 


Pennsylvania 


91.6 




Rhode Island 


105.5 


lUiDois ". . 


South Carolina 

Tennessee 


100.2 




101.2 




Texas 


62.9 




Vermont 


95.9 




Virginia 


96.2 




Wisconsin 


72.6 




1 Minnesota. . . . 
Terri- [New Mexico. . 
tories. ' Oregon 

J Utah 


45.1 


Massachusetts 


82.3 


Michigan 


47.0 




78.7 







This table furnishes a very satisfactory solution why a wide difference 
in births should exist between Utah and California, the proportion of females 
of an age to adapt them for child-bearing being large in the former, while 
it is insignificant in the latter. In Utah, there are 101 females between the 
ages of 15 and 20, 70 between 20 and 30, 78.5 between 30 and 40, and 
78.7 between 40 and 50, to every one hundred males; while in Califor- 
nia, there are but 19.1 between 15 and 20, 3.5 between 20 and 30, 4.5 be- 
tween 30 and 40, and 6 between 40 and 50, to each one hundred males. 

A comparison of Utah, however, with some other sections of the Union, 
as the District of Columbia, and the States of Massachusetts, New Hamp- 
shire, North Carolina and Tennessee, shows it to possess a considerably less 
proportional number of females of the ages above indicated than these 
States. In the District of Columbia, the relative number of females included 
in these ages is greater than in any other portion of the United States. 



•IN DIFFERENT STATES. 47 

The number of births in the parts of the Union above indicated, do not 
by any manner of means maintain a ratio corresponding to the number of 
females; those of the District of Columbia being 2.60 per cent. ; of Mas- 
sachusetts, 2.33; of New Hampshire, 1.92; of North Carolina, 2.87; and of 
Tennessee, 3.02. 

The most recently settled Western States appear to be most prolific. 
Thus, the ratio of births in Arkansas is 3.36 per cent. ; in Illinois, 3.13 ; in 
Indiana, 3.27; in Iowa, 3.17; in Missouri, 3.30; in Wisconsin, 3.41. This 
diiference is doubtless due to the fact that a larger proportional number of 
females are joined in wedlock, in the Western than the Eastern States. 
Unfortunately, the returns do not give the relation of the family to its head, 
and it is consequently impossible to ascertain, among other important en- 
quiries, the number of those who are living in a single, married, or widowed 
state, with any degree of certainty. The inference, however, that a larger 
proportional number of persons are married in the Western than in the 
Eastern States, is based upon tolerably authentic grounds, and among others 
upon results of the above table of births. 

European authorities, when instituting a comparison into the relative 
number of births which occur among their own populations, are accus- 
tomed to attach great importance to the abundance or scantiness of the 
crops, and more especially to the wheat crop, as a cause for producing an 
increased or diminished number of births among a given population. Mr. 
Milne, in his able work on Annuities, has given a table exhibiting the pro- 
gress of the population of Sweden and Finland, and the character of the 
crops from 1749 to 1803, a period of fifty-four years, for the purpose of 
illustrating this point. The table very clearly establishes that the ratio of 
births to that of the population, was not uniform, and that those years in 
which the least number took place, were those which followed a deficient 
crop. 



48 



PROPORTION OF BIRTHS AFFECTED 



" It will be observed," remarks Mr. Milne, " that any material reduc- 
tion in the price of wheat, is almost always accompanied by an increase 
both of marriages and conceptions, and by a decrease in the number of 
burials, consequently an increase in the excess of births over the deaths. 

"Also, that any material rise in the price is generally attended by a 
corresponding decrease in the marriages and conceptions, and by an in- 
crease in the burials ; therefore, by a decrease in the excess of the births 
above the deaths. 

" Thus it appears, that an increase in the quantity of food, or in the 
facility wherewith the laboring classes can obtain it, accelerates the popula- 
tion, both by augmenting the actual fecundity,* and diminishing the rate of 
mortality, and that a scarcity of food retards the increase of the people by 
producing in both ways opposite effects." 

With the view of further illustrating this proposition, Mr. Milne con- 
structed a table of the numbers of the marriages, baptisms, and burials in 
England and Wales, taken from the population returns, with the price of 
wheat, as given in the Appendix to the Committee of the House of Com- 
mons, and certified by the Receiver of Corn Returns. 

"This table also shows, that an increase of food increases the actual 
fecundity, not only by promoting new marriages, but by rendering those 
already contracted more prolific. Thus : — 



There were in 
the year 


Marriages. 


Conceptions. 


When the price of 

the quarter of 

Wheat was 


1790 
1792 


70,648 
74,919 


255,508 
264,028 


£2 13 2 
2 2 11 


Differences. . 


4,271 


8,520 


£0 10 3 



* By the actual fecundity, that part only of the absolute physical power of propagation is here 
to be understood which the actual circumstances allow of being developed." 



BY FAVORABLE AND UNFAVORABLE SEASONS. 



49 



Whereby it appears that a fall of 10s. 3d. in the price of the quarter 
of wheat was attended by an increase of 4,271 in the number of the annual 
marriages, while the annual conceptions were augmented by nearly twice 
that number. Again — 



There were in 
the year 


Marriages. 


Conceptions. 


When the price of 

the quarter of 

Wheat was 


' 1795 
1797 


68,839 
74,997 


256,781 
270,536 


£3 14 2 
2 13 r 


Differences . . 


6,158 


13,754 


£1 1 1 



Where the increase of the conceptions, accompanying the fall of 
wheat, was more than double that of the marriages.* 

The reliability of the facts adduced by Mr. Milne, and the correctness 
of the reasoning based upon them, when applied to the populous communi- 
ties of the Old World, do not admit of question. They cannot, however, be 
applied with equal force to the inhabitants of the New, and especially to 
that portion embraced within the limits of the United States, because, as it 
has been already stated, the crops are never so short in any part of the 
Union as to prove a cause of serious distress to the inhabitants. 

But notwithstanding the fact, that there is no portion of the Union 
where labor is not repaid by a sufficient remuneration to procure an ample 
supply of food, yet the facility of obtaining this in the newly-settled States, 
is so much greater than in the older, more especially where they contain 
populous cities, as to produce a decided impression upon the population 
which inhabits them. 

Even among the humbler classes, who, by their numbers, exercise a 
preponderating influence over the movements of population, and among 



* Milne on Annuities, p. 390. 



50 EFFECT OF GENEROUS DIET IN 

whom adventitious wants may be easily laid aside, the assumption of the 
burden of a family becomes a subject of much more serious consideration 
in the older States, where a large part of their earnings must necessarily be 
expended in their maintenance, than in the new, where the necessaries of 
life can be obtained upon the most reasonable terms. 

A very natural effect of these causes, is to increase the number of mar- 
riages in the new States, and to render those already contracted more pro- 
lific. This deduction would lead us to anticipate that in any population 
returns, a larger number of births would be recorded in the new States 
which are affected by these influences, than in the old, where their effect is 
either not felt, or if so, in a diminished degree. 

It has been asserted that misery tends to the contraction of frequent 
and reckless marriages, and consequently serves to swell the number of 
births. Ireland is often cited in illustration of the truth of this position. 
A recent writer says : " That the ignorance of artificial wants and the des- 
titute condition of the Irish, are strongly conducive to early marriages. As 
a natural consequence, there is hardly a peasant of twenty who is not married, 
and invariably the greater the destitution of the people, the greater is the 
rapidity with which they contract the marriage union." 

The Irish census of 1841 includes the number of married, unmarried, 
and widowed persons of each age ; and so far from establishing the facts 
above enunciated with such apparent confidence, proves that the number 
of persons above the age of fifteen who are unmarried in Ireland, is greater 
in proportion than in any country from which returns have been made, thus 
confirming the position established by Nicander, Wargentin, Messance, and 
Milne, and other early statisticians, that the increase in the number of 
births is inseparably associated with a good harvest and a consequently fair 
supply of food, and that the reverse of these conditions tends to a diminu- 
tion of their number. 



INCREASING THE RATIO OP BIRTHS. 



51 



In Ireland, where, even before the taking of the census of 1841, plen- 
tiful harvests had for many years been far from frequent, and after 
proved the exception rather than the rule, a large proportion of unmarried 
persons might be expected. The annexed tables, taken from the Registrar- 
General's Report, furnish important data upon this point : — 



Men. 


Ages. 


Unmarried. 


Married. 


Widowers. 


Total. 


17-26 
26-36 
36-46 
46-56 
56 


633,753 

235,689 

63,358 

29,176 

25,864 


55,407 
310,492 
324,187 
234,110 
217,811 


669 

6,335 

13,914 

22,549 

68,161 


689,829 
652,416 
401,459 
285,835 
311,836 


17 and ujiwards 


987,740 


1,142,007 


111,628 


2,241,375 


17-46 


932,700 


690,086 


20,918 


1,643,704 


Women. 


Women aged 15-45. 


Estimated numbers 
in 1641. 


Number who bore 

children in 

1S42. 


Proportion of child- 
ren registered to 
100 women. 


Women to one 
birth nearly 


Married 

Unmarried 


1,733,576 
2,078,078, 


489,849 
35,294 


23.3 
1.7 


4 

59 



By this report it appears that of the 689,829 males, between the ages 
of 17 and 26, but 54,407 were married, and 633,753 were unmarried, — thus 
disproving in the clearest manner the general allegation, that in this im- 
poverished country the rule is to contract early marriages. Of the entire 
male population, between the ages of 17 and 46, amounting to 1,643,704, 
but 690,086 were married. 

Among the female portion of the population, between 15 and 45 years, 
numbering 3,811,654, but 1,733,576, or 45.48 per cent, of those whose 
age fitted them for procreation, were married. 



52 CONDITION OF THE IRISH 

It "would be extremely desirable to ascertain the absolute eiFect pro- 
duced by migration from one county to another, and especially from one 
"where the means of obtaining a livelihood "were precarious, to another, 
"where they could be readily obtained. It unfortunately happens that here 
the census returns afford but slight information, and even the registration 
reports of the several States do not appear to cover this ground. 

Nothing is more marked than the change in the habits of the Irish 
people, in relation to their food upon their arrival in this country. Dr. 
Wilde, in his " Table of Deaths." "which accompanied the census of Ireland, 
of 1851, states, " that the blight "which recently fell upon the potato, pro- 
duced a deadly famine, because the people had cultivated it so extensively, 
and were accustomed to its use almost exclusively, and "when it failed 
millions became as utterly destitute as if the island "were incapable of pro- 
ducing any other species of sustenance." There are fe"w, in the United 
States, who do not so far abandon the exclusive use of the potato, to which 
they were accustomed at home, as to make it an inconsiderable part of their 
ordinary meals, which usually consist of an intermixture of animal and 
vegetable food, of which latter the potato, it is true, forms a chief ingre- 
dient. Bread is likewise partaken of freely by them, and is as extensively 
used among the Irish as among the native population. 

It is not possible to conceive how a people, who were so much attached 
to the use of the potato, that a revolution in diet in this respect required 
" even more than the stern necessity of want before it could be accom- 
plished, or any other description of food made palatable to them," should 
so suddenly and generally have abandoned their ancient customs and 
adopted a new diet, when the old one was easily obtained at reasonable rates. 

A remarkable feature in the population returns of Ireland, is the large 
diminution of population which they exhibit between the census of 184] 
and that of 1851. 



IN IRELAND AND AMERICA. 53 

According to the returns of 1841, there were 4,019,576 males, and 
4,155,548 females, or 8,175,124 inhabitants. The returns of 1851 show 
3,190,506 males, and 3,361,463 females, or 6,551,970 inhabitants, being a 
decrease of 1,623,154 inhabitants in ten years. 

Mr. Thom, in his Statistics of Ireland, thus accounts for this deficiency : 
" The emigration of the United Kingdom during the last five years 
gives an annual average of 284,534 persons. If this emigration be analyzed, 
the results as regards Ireland will be much more striking. The decrease in 
the population of Ireland between 1841 and 1851 was 1,623,154. Assuming 
that nine-tenths of the emigration from Liverpool during those ten years 
was Irish, and adding thereto the emigration direct from Ireland and in 
ships chartered by the Land and Emigration Commissioners, we have the 
following result : — 

Nine-tenths of emigration from Liverpool 813,844 

Emigration direct from Ireland 441,23T 

Irish in ships chartered by the Land and Emigration Board 34,052 

Total Irish emigration in the 10 years 1,289,133 

or more than three-fourths of the whole decrease. 

" In regard to the emigration of 1851, the Emigration Officer at Glas- 
gow states that of 14,435 emigrants who sailed from the Clyde to America, 
about one-third were Irish. Proceeding then in regard to other places on 
the same estimate, we should assume the Irish emigration of 1851 to have 
been — 

Mne-tenths emigrants from Liverpool 185,414 

Emigrants direct from Ireland 62,350 

One-third from Glasgow ' 4,811 

Emigrants to Australia in ships chartered by the Land and 

Emigration Commissioners 4,Y9Y 

Making a total of 257,373 



54 CONDITION OF THE IRISH 

" By the census return, the population of Ireland, on the 31st March, 
1851, amounted to 6,551,970. Assuming that this population were in- 
creased by births at the rate of one per cent, per annum, which (taking 
into account the emigration) was the rate of increase between 1831 and 
1841, it would give an annual addition of only 65,157. The emigration, 
therefore, of 1851, while it nearly doubled the estimated average emigra- 
tion of the preceding ten years, exceeded any probable increase of the 
population by nearly 4 to 1. But this calculation, unfavorable as it appears, 
is clearly below the truth ; for the classes that emigrate include a large pro- 
portion of the youngest, the healthiest, and most energetic of the adult 
population, on which the excess of births over deaths mainly depends. We 
should be disposed to believe that those who remain, including an unusual 
proportion of the old, the most feeble, and most destitute, do not at the 
most dp more than replace, by births, their losses by deaths. If so, it would 
follow that the annual decrease of the population in Ireland is not less than 
the annual amount of the emigration, and that unless the emigration be soon 
arrested, the country will be deserted by its original population. The 
Colonial Land and Emigration Commissioners, in their twelfth report, state, 
that they do not believe that 

" ' The emigration will be arrested by anything short of a great improve- 
ment in the position of the laboring population in Ireland ; all those obstacles which 
in ordinary cases would be opposed to so wholesale an emigration appear in the case 
of the Irish to be smoothed away. The misery which they have for many years 
endured has destroyed the attachment to their native soil ; the numbers who have 
already emigrated and prospered remove the apprehension of going to a strange and 
untried country, while the want of means is remedied by the liberal contributions of 
their relations and friends who have preceded them. The contributions so made, 
either in the form of pre-paid passages or of money sent home, and which are almost 
exclusively provided by the Irish, were returned to us, as in 



IN IRELAND AND AMERICA. 



55 



1848, upwards of £460,000 

1849 540,000 

1850 957,000 

and 1851 990,000 

" ' And although it is probable that all the money included in these returns is not 
expended in emigration, yet as we have reason to know that much is sent home of 
which these returns show no trace, it seems not unfair to assume that of the money 
expended in Irish emigration in each of the last four years a very large proportion 
was provided from the other side of the Atlantic' " 

This large emigration, together with the increased mortality induced 
by the famine, which reached its culminating point in 1847, affords a satis- 
factory solution for this remarkable deficiency — a large proportion of what 
Ireland has thus lost in population, the United States appears to have 
gained. 

The city of Boston has classified the nativities of the parents of the 
children born within its jurisdiction. From the returns of the City Regis- 
trar, for 1855, the following table was compiled : — 



Birthplaces of Parents. 


Fathers. 


Mothers. 


Birthplaces of Parents. 


Fathers. 


Mothers. 


Boston 


369 

467 

288 

251 

89 

26 

13 

134 

221 


430 

408 

330 

190 

62 

23 

28 

122 

165 


Scotland . , 


78 

3,019 

34 

4 

346 

221 

64 

152 


59 


Massachusetts (out of Boston) 




8,231 
23 




New Hampshire , , , . .- 


Spain and Portu^^al 


4 




Germany and Northern Europe . . 

British American Provinces 

Other Foreign Countries 

Unknown 


273 


Connecticut 


252 


Rhode Island 


29 


Other American States 


137 


Enffland ... • 


Totals 






5,766 


5,766 



This table exhibits a very large proportion of births among the foreign 
population — the greater number of which were of Irish parentage, 3,019 
fathers, and 3,231 mothers, or 50.30 per cent, of the whole being emigrants 
from that country. The census of 1855 makes the entire population of 



56 INCREASE OF BIRTHS. 

Boston 162,748 ; which, with the ratio of births, is distributed in Wards, 
as follows : — 

Wards. Population. Births. Ratio. 

1 19,264 I6i as 1 to 25.21 

II. 16,963 715 " 1 " 22.32 

in 13^175 469 " 1 " 28.09 

lY 7,912 123 " 1 " 64.32 

V 10,428 340 " 1 " 30.67 

YI. .' 11,597 266 " 1 " 43.60 

YII 18,430 750 " 1 " 24.57 

Vin 12,690 434 " 1 " 29.24 

IX 9,541 308 " 1 " 30.97 

X 12,553 445 " 1 " 28.20 

XI 13,264 511 " 1 " 25.96 

XII 17,931 691 " 1 " 25.95 

162,748 5,816 

When compared with the returns of the Irish census, as just noticed, 
these statistics lead to the irresistible conclusion, that notwithstanding the 
incidents of bad air, crowded lodgings, and the privations attendant upon 
emigration among the poor, the physical condition of this people is so 
altered by emigration, as to render them much more prolific in this country 
than in their own. A high degree of prosperity however is not always evi- 
denced by a great increase of births, because, among the poor it frequently 
occurs that excessive mortality among infants, by relieving the mothers of 
their charge, predisposes to an increase of births. In instituting a compari- 
son, therefore, the rate of mortality among the young as well as the number 
of births should be taken into consideration. 

How much the habits of the Irish population of Boston predisposes to 
infantile mortality may be gleaned from a knowledge of the localities they 
inhabit. The largest number of Irish are to be found in Ward No. 8, of the 
old division. " This section of the city contains the least number of inhab- 



AMONG THE FOREIGN POPULATION. 57 

ited houses, and at the same time the greatest number of persons to a house, 
there being an avarage 21.18 individuals to each house. Two houses in the 
ward contain 19 families each; five houses were occupied by 10 families 
each ; fourteen by 9 families each ; thirty-two by 8 ; and fifty-six by 7 
families each." 

Most of the apartments thus occupied are illy ventilated, and many are 
underground or cellar dwellings, where the needy occupants in addition to 
a depraved air, are subjected to the evils incident to poverty which, under 
the best circumstances, is accompanied by its train of privations. 

From these facts it is reasonable to conclude, that the infantile mor- 
tality in this ward is much greater than in those portions of the city where 
the inhabitants are better provided with airy and wholesome dwellings. As 
will hereafter be seen, the early mortality of children of foreign parentage 
greatly exceeds that occurring among those born of native parents, and 
largely contributes to swell the infantile mortality, which characterizes the 
mortuary records of the chief towns in the United States. 



58 KECOED OF BIRTHS 



CHAPTER VI. 

EECORD OF BIETHS IN THE SEVERAL STATES. 

The reports of Massachusetts which now contain the results of up- 
wards of fourteen years of registration, furnish very authoritative data, so 
far as the movements of population in that State are concerned. They 
reflect high credit upon the State under whose auspices they were pro- 
duced, and the gentlemen engaged in their elaboration. These reports 
furnish conclusive evidence of the manner in which the population is 
affected by a large increase of foreign immigration, and its diffusion among 
its population. Of all the births and marriages which have occurred since 
1849, in Boston, Lowell, Fall River, Lawrence, and perhaps other populous 
towns, the proportion of the foreign to the native, has been as two of the 
former to one of the latter. 

The ratio of increase has steadily been in favor of the foreign births. 
The counties most affected in this particular are those within whose limits 
are centered most of the manufacturing establishments of the State, which 
are very numerous, and give employment to a large number of workmen. 
In these establishments, in one capacity or another, employment is obtained 
by a large number of persons of foreign birth, and hence the influence exer- 
cised over the movements of population. In those rural districts where 



IN MASSACHUSETTS. 



59 



manufacturing establishments do not exist, this influence is not felt. Thus, 
in the three counties of Barnstable, Dukes and Nantucket, which are essen- 
tially agricultural, the foreign population does not exceed ten per cent, of 
the whole. 

The ultimate effect of this extensive immigration upon the future con- 
dition of the State, considered in a social or political point of view, how- 
ever interesting to the political economist, lies beyond the limits of the 
present enquiry, which is necessarily confined to its effect upon the increase 
or decrease of population, and the influence it exercises in elevating or 
depressing its physical standard. 

The first registration report of Rhode Island gives the following as the 
number of births which occurred in the year ending 31st May, 1853. Of 
American parentage, 874. Foreign, 663. Unknown, 322. Total, 1859. 
Of which 1810 were white and 49 colored. 

The entire population of the State in 1850, was 147,549. A large 
number of districts failed to make the necessary returns, deducting those 
which failed from the population, it would leave 96,373 as the portion 
among whom the 1859 births occurred which have been recorded, being 1 
to 51.84 of the inhabitants. The census returns estimate 3,610 as the num- 
ber of births for 1850, which is a much more probable number than that 
given by the State authorities. 

The second and third Registration Reports of this State are much more 
exact and reliable than the first. The number of births, according to these 
returns, in 

1853 was 1793 

1854 " 2105 

1855 " 2926 

"We cannot," adds the report, " estimate accurately the proportion of 



60 RECORD OF BIRTHS 

births to population. The city of Providence stands in this respect on a 
wholly different footing from other places, the city being canvassed for this 
particular purpose, by inquiries from house to house. The births for 1855 
"were ascertained in January, 1856. The average monthly number was 133, 
or nearly twenty in a month more than were reported in previous years. 
They were one to every thirty of the inhabitants of the city, by the census 
of 1855. 

" In the city of Providence, there were 720 children born in the first 
six months of the year, and 880 in the last six months. This difference is 
wholly in the births of children of foreign parentage. ' The children of 
American parents born were, during the first six months, 319, and during the 
last six months, 320, showing no difference of any consequence in the sea- 
sons ; while the children born of foreign parents, were 358 during the first, 
and 497 during the last six months of the year, — a difference of 139. The 
children of mixed parentage are omitted.' This difference is ascribed to 
the depressed condition of public health during a large part of the year 
1854, in the summer months of which there was a great increase of mor- 
tality, mostly from cholera. This increased mortality was almost confined 
to the foreign population. ' We have in this fact another illustration of the 
disastrous effects of an epidemic upon the prosperity of a community, and 
of the importance of sanitary precautions. An epidemic not only destroys 
the lives of the people, but also reduces the number of children born.' 

" In other parts of the State, there were but sixty more births reported 
as occurring in the last than in the first six months of the year. 

" The parentage of children born is exhibited, in the tables for 1854 
and 1855, in a somewhat different manner from that which was adopted 
previously. The cases of ' mixed ' parentage, — ^where one parent was Ame- 
rican, and the other foreign — are distinguished from others. We will show, 
in a concise form, the births for these two years arranged under three heads, 



IN RHODE ISLAND. 



61 



American, Foreign, and Mixed. Those of unknown parentage are omitted 
in casting the percentages : — ^ 





American. 


Foreign. 


Mixed. 


Unknown. 


Total. 




No. 


Per cent . 


No. 


Per cent. 


No. 


Per cent. 


No. 


No. 


Per cent. 


Bristol County 

Kent County 

Newport County 

Towns of Prov. Co.. . 

ProTidence City 

Washington County . . 


238 
168 
477 
328 
1266 
132 


75.08 
70.29 
77.56 
62.71 
42.83 
80.00 


57 

60 

113 

181 

1512 

29 


17. S8 
25.11 
18.37 
34.61 
51.16 
17.58 


22 
11 

25 
14 

178 
4 


6.94 
4.60 
4.07 
2.68 
6.02 
2.42 


65 
50 
24 
60 
6 
12 


382 
289 
639 
583 
2961 
177 


100.00 
100.00 
100.00 
100.00 
100.00 
100.00 


Whole State 


2609 


54.18 


1952 


40.64 


254 


5.28 


216 


5031 


100.00 



" It may be desirable to compare the proportions for the two years 
together, and also with the results obtained in Massachusetts within a few 
years past, which will be seen to correspond very closely with our own : — 





Rhode Island. 


Massachusetts. 


1854. 


1855. 


1853-1854. 


American 


54.71 

40.59 

4.70 


53.82 

40.50 

5.68 


54.53 

40.63 

4.84 




Mixed 




Total 


100.00 


100.00 


100.00 





" The proportion of births of purely foreign parentage in Rhode Island 
is almost precisely the same in the two years ; but there is an increase of 
about one per cent, in the ra;tio of mixed parentages. Of these, 124 in the 
two years were of American fathers and foreign mothers, and 130 were the 
converse. In the two years taken together, the births of American father 
and foreign mother, form 2.58 per cent., those of foreign father and Ameri- 
can mother form 2.70 per cent, of the whole number. 



62 RELATIVE PROPORTION OF BIRTHS 

" As stated in our former report, the births of foreign parentage are in 
much higher joroportion than were the foreign-born population, at the time 
of the last census. In 1850, the foreign-born inhabitants were not quite 
one-sixth of all in the State, — 16.17 to 100. In the years 1854 and 1855, 
the children born of foreign parentage were full two-fifths (40.54 to 100) 
of all those born in the State, whose parentage was reported. This great 
difference is almost exactly the same as mentioned in our last report. It is 
probably made up of two elements, the increased proportion of foreign-born 
inhabitants since 1850, and their being actually more productive for their 
number. This last circumstance may depend in part on physical and social 
differences ; and in part on the higher proportion of individuals in the early 
adult age. Such a characteristic may be expected among a class formed by 
large immigration of persons of both sexes. 

"The births of foreign parentage in 1854 and 1855, were in higher 
ratio than the foreign inhabitants in 1850, in every county ; the ratio being 
more than twice as high in Providence city and Washington county, and 
more than three times as high in Kent county. 

" In the city of Providence, we can compare the births of each class 
with the population by the census of 1855. In so doing, we will quote 
from the City Registrar's Report : ' The population of the city, according 
to parentage, by the census of 1855, was, American, 27,897, Foreign, 
19,432 ; but the children born during the same year, if we put those of 
mixed parentage according to the birth-place of the father, were, American, 
685, Foreign, 915, showing an excess of 230 children of foreign parents. 
Comparing the births with the population, the results are asfoUows : — 

American population. . 58.94 per cent. American children born. . 42.81 per cent. 
Foreign population 41.06 per cent. Foreign children born 67.19 per cent.' 



AMONG NATIVE AND FOREIGN POPULATION. 63 

" The births of American parentage in the city were one to 40.7 of the 
American-born inhabitants; the births of foreign parentage were one in 
21.2 of the foreign-born inhabitants. The births of mixed parentage are 
here classed according to the birth-place of the fathers. It appears, then, 
that in the city of Providence, the imported population are very nearly 
twice as productive, for their number, as the native." 

The population of Rhode Island is largely engaged in manufacturing, 
and it is highly probable that the same influences are at work as are 
developed by the admirable statistics of Massachusetts, in that State. The 
percentage of foreign to the whole, is jiearly 16 per cent., and but little 
short of that of Massachusetts. Of the entire foreign population of the 
State, 23,111 in number, 21,434 are from Great Britain and Ireland, 15,944 
being from Ireland alone. The larger proportion of these are centered in 
towns and about the manufacturing establishments. 

The registration returns of Connecticut for six years, give the number 
of births for each year consecutively, as follows : — 



1848 6,850 

1849 7,238 



1850 7,578 

1851 8,362 



1853 8,302 

1864 8,439 



The ratio of births to the population in 1850, was one in each forty- 
five of the inhabitants. The census returns estimate the number of births in 
1850 at 7,646, which varies but little from the registration returns. No 
record is made of the parentage of those who are born, and consequently 
no comparison can be instituted. 

From the returns of New Jersey, it would appear that the number of 
births in 1854 were less than in 1850 — the census returns of that year enume- 
rating 13,556 births, while the registration returns for 1854, give a total of 
but 12,602 births for that year. The registration report does not include the 



64 REASONS FOR GREATER FECUNDITY 

number of births in the whole State, as thirty-seven townships scattered 
through the various counties are noted as not making any return "whatever, 
or omitting the number of births. By deducting the population of these 
townships from that of the whole State, a tolerable approximation to the 
truth may be obtained. 

The registration reports of Kentucky, for 1852 and 1853, which are 
more reliable than those of any other State, except Massachusetts, show 
that the number of births in Kentucky in 1852, was 25,906, and in 1853, 
26,767. The number returned in 1850, by the census, was 23,805. 

The various statistics of births derived from all sources, give an aggre- 
gate ratio of one birth to each thirty-five of the inhabitants. That the 
number has been considerably under-estimated, does not admit of doubt. 
Many instances of carelessness and omission have already come to light, 
and how many remain undetected can never, in all probability, be ascertained. 

There are reasons why the United States should exhibit a large 
number of births, instead of the small one indicated by the returns. The 
argument already adduced, that a plentiful supply of food and fecundity, 
go hand in hand, should operate with peculiar force, in the case of the 
population of this country. As its supply of food is superabundant, so 
should the increase of its population by birth be great. Again, the number 
of children, under one year of age, in 1850, was 629,446. Now, when the 
large number of deaths which occur in the first year are taken into con- 
sideration, it becomes obvious that a larger proportion of births must have 
occurred than are represented by the records, in order to admit of the ex- 
istence of this population. 

There are two sources from which a population may derive increase, 
one by birth, and another by immigration. Allowing the full latitude to the 
capacity of the latter, which has been assigned to it by Professor Tucker, 



IN NEW THAN OLD COUNTRIES. 



65 



Mr. Chickering and others, it still requires a larger increase by births than 
one in thirty-five, to account for the increase of the population of the whole 
country, admitting the ratio of deaths to approximate the per centage pre- 
viously assigned to them. 

The annual average births in the principal countries of Europe are de- 
tailed in the annexed table : — 





AssnAi. BiKTHS TO 100 Pebsons Lmsa. 


Pebsons Litino m 




Legitimate. 


niegitimate. 


Both. 


Birth. 


France 


2,632 
2,992 
S,501 
8,452 


.205 
.216 
.260 
.422 


2,837 
3,208 
3,V6'7 
3,8Y4 
4:,2S4 


35 


England 


81 


Prussia 


27 


Austria 


26 


Russia 


23 







While the number in England reaches 1 in 31, in Prussia 1 in 27, in 
Austria 1 in 26, and in Russia 1 in 23, there appears to exist no cause why 
in the United States, where the increase in population is so much greater 
than any of these countries, the number of births should be but 1 in 35. 

Now all those who were under one year of age, at the taking of the 
census in 1850, must have been born within the twelve months preceding. 
If to the 629,446 persons below the age of one year there enumerated, be 
added twenty per cent, for loss by deaths, which corresponds tolerably 
well with the Massachusetts returns, the number born in that year would 
have been 755,336, or one to each thirty inhabitants, a number nearly cor- 
responding to that of England, and much more in accordance with the 
ratio of increase of population than the estimate of births heretofore given. 

It is rendered obvious, by a comparison of the relative proportion of 
births in different parts of the country, that the same causes which have 
been found to exercise an influence in the increase or diminution of their 
8 



66 BIRTHS IN THE UNITED STATES. 

numbers in other countries, operate with equal force in this, and if the 
causes to which reference has been made be found to produce results in 
obedience to acknowledged laws, when applied to a comparison of one 
section with another, there is no reason for not admitting their application, 
when making a comparison of the country with other countries as a whole. 

With the view of ascertaining the natural increase of the whole popu- 
lation by birth. Professor Tucker instituted a comparison between the white 
females in the several States, as returned by each census, and the number of 
children under ten years of age. 

An examination of the percentage of births is given by Professor 
Tucker, while it clearly demonstrates a gradual falling off of the whole 
number, as compared with the existing population, at the same time shows 
a much greater number than one birth to each thirty-five inhabitants, after 
making a proper deduction for loss by deaths in the early periods of life. 
These results, so far from exciting surprise, are precisely what might have 
been anticipated in a new country whose increase of population has been 
rapid, and a considerable portion of whose territory has within the memory 
of those now living been converted from a wilderness into well peopled 
districts, covered with cultivated fields, and considerable towns. In the 
earlier period of these settlements experience demonstrates that the number 
of married persons is more numerous, and the proportion of births greater, 
than at a later period, when questions of prudence operate in retarding 
marriage, and diminishing the relative number of births. 



PROPORTION OF THE SEXES. 67 



CHAPTER VII. 



PROPORTION OF THE SEXES AT BIRTH. 



The proportion of the sexes at birth would appear to be regulated by 
some general law, which operates with tolerable uniformity in giving a 
slight preponderance to the male over the female births. Although this 
proportion is nearly the same in all countries and at remote periods of time, 
yet it is liable to a slight variation, which manifests itself in every return of 
births, so that it rarely happens that two returns exhibit the same relative 
number of male and female births. 

The reason for the want of uniformity in returns apparently collected 
under like circumstances, and yet which approach so nearly as to produce 
an admirable equipoise among the sexes, is among the questions for which 
no satisfactory solution has been offered. 

Dr. Curtis, in the eighth registration report of Massachusetts, has given 
a table comprising the number of births which occurred in that common- 
wealth, for the five years intervening between January 1st, 1845, and 
January 1st, 1850, with the months in which they took place, and the 
number of male and female births. This table, which embraces 92,272 
births, is appended : — 



68 



PROPORTION OF THE 





Whole 
Number. 


Sex. 


Pkopoetioh. 


Females in 

each 10,000 

Males. 


Months. 


Males. 


Females. 


Unknown. 


Males. 


Females. 


January , , , 


7478 
7533 
8352 
7920 
6804 
6934 
7804 
8267 
8251 
7974 
7446 
7509 


3833 

3817 

4283 

4030 

3552 

3665 

3918 

4225 , 

4136 

4115 

3899 

3855 


3572 
3640 
3977 
3771 
3194 
3306 
3833 
3992 
4053 
3791 
3499 
3686 


73 
76 
92 
119 
58 
63 
63 
50 
62 
68 
48 
68 


51.76 
61.18 
51.85 
51.66 
52.66 
51.81 
50.22 
61.44 
52.18 
52.06 
52.70 
61.81 


48.24 
48.82 
48.15 
48.34 
47.34 
48.19 
49.78 
48.66 
47.82 
47.94 
47.30 
48.19 


931^ 


February 


9658 


March 


9''86 


April 


9357 


May 




June 


9301 


July 


991(> 
9440 


August 


September 


9164 


October 


goQS 


November 


8975 


December 


9301 






Total 


92,272 


47,228 


44,214 


830 


51.66 


48.35 


9362 





In the foiu'teenth registration report of Massachusetts, Dr. Shurtleflf 
has given a table containing the births for five years, ending with 1855, 
which is also appended : — 



Sex. 


1850. 


1851. 


1852. 


1853. 


1854. 


1855. 


Aggregate. 


Per 

Centage. 


Males 


14,137 

13,392 

135 


14,949 

13,613 

119 


15,246 

14,432 

124 


15,798 

14,966 

167 


16,352 

16,469 

176 


16,785 

16,888 

172 


93,267 

87,759 

833 


61-33 

48 16 

51 


Females 


Unknown 




Totals 


27,664 


28,681 


29,802 


30,920 


31,997 


32,845 


181,909 


100.00 





The construction of these tables is different, and intended to ansv/er 
different questions, yet they both reply to the one which is propounded to 
them as to the relative proportion of the sexes at birth. 

Together they embrace the record of 274,181 births, and extend over a 
period of eleven years. It will be seen, that in obedience to the law already 
spoken of, the number of male births is invariably in the preponderance, 
and in correspondence with the law of variation, the relative pro- 
portion of the two sexes is never in any two returns alike. Of the 92,272 



SEXES AT BIRTH. 69 

births included in Dr. Curtis's table, 47,228 were males, and 44,214 females. 
This gives the relative proportion of 107 males to 100 females, but during 
the last two years the males bore the proportion of 108 to 100 females. In 
the year 1850, the excess of male births was 745 ; in 1851, 1,336 ; in 1852, 
814; in 1853, 833; in 1854, 883; and in 1855, 897. Thus the relative 
proportion of the sexes within certain limits is ever varying — the year 
1849, which had an excess of 1,066 male births was succeeded by a year in 
which they had declined to 745, and this again was succeeded by one in 
which they had risen to 1,336. 

Dr. Curtis separated the births which occurred in town in the year 
1849, from those which took place in rural districts, with the following 
result : — 

Males 

Females . . ., . 

Unknown 



5,344 . 


. 7,985 


5,106 . 


. 7,167 


16 . 


155 



Total 10,466 .. 15,307 



Proportion of Females in each 10,000 Males . 9,555 . . 8,976 

This table shows, that while the percentage of male births in the 
country was 52.70, it had declined in town to 51.14, or 1.56 per cent, less 
than in the country. The division denominated " city," contained nine 
cities and three towns, having over 10,000 inhabitants each. 

The 1859 births, which are noted in the registration returns of Rhode 
Island, for the year 1853, are divided into 942 males, 899 females, and 18 
unknown, being in the ratio of 104 males to 100 females. It may be noted 
as a curious circumstance, that of the thirty-nine births occurring in Provi- 
dence county among the colored inhabitants, but seventeen were males, and 
twenty-two were females. The preponderance of all the births in the 
county, however, was in favor of the males. 



70 PROPORTION OF THE 

Of those which took, place in 1854, 1081 were males, 1003 females, and 
21 are unknown ; and of those which occurred in 1855, 1492 were males, 
1421 females, and 13 of unknown sex. 

" The number of males born," adds the report, " in all our returns, 
exceeds that of females, in the proportion of a little more than four and 
four-tenths per cent.* An excess of male over female births is generally- 
found in prosperous communities. It is a remarkable fact, one which we 
may be happy that the information now before us gives us no means of 
illustrating, that periods of general calamity are followed by a lessened pre- 
ponderance in the number of male births, or even an excess of females. 
Thus it has been observed that children born nearly a year after the preva- 
lence of epidemic cholera, in Philadelphia and also in Paris, twenty-five 
years ago, show a preponderance of female births. On the other hand, the 
favorable circumstances of plentiful food, pure aii', wholesome and sufficient 
occupation, without overworking, — all have been found to increase the pro- 
portion of male births. In this point of view, our returns are not very- 
favorable indications of the state of our people. In Massachusetts, for the 
five years, 1849-1853, the excess of male births was about seven per cent. 
In Philadelphia, according to Dr. Gouverneur Emerson, who has directed 
particular attention to this point, it is about 7 per cent. ; in England, about 
5 ; in France and Prussia, about 7 ; while ' in the rural districts of the 
United States, and especially in the newest settlements,' it is supposed to be 
not less than 10 per cent. We trust that fuller returns will enable this 
State to make a more favorable show ; and we note this comparison, not to 
throw a slur on the manly force of our State, but to provoke, if possible, 
more exact attention hereafter to this inquiry, which is considered one of 
the tests by which the welfare of a community may be judged. f 

* That is, for every 1000 females, about 1044 males were born, 
f 2d Registration Report Rhode Island, p. 16. 



SEXES AT BIETH. 71 

The number of births in the City of Providence for 1856 was 1675, of 
which 891 were males, and 784 females. The proportion was one bu'th to 
29.3 inhabitants. 

" The proportion of the sexes shows a remarkable increase in the rela- 
tive number of males, being 53.19 males and 46.81 females in each 100 
children born, or 113.6 males to 100 females. In the State of Massachu- 
setts, during six years from 1849-54 inclusive, the proportion was 51.37 
males, and 48.12 females in each 100 children born, and in the State of 
Ehode Island for the year 1855, the proportions were, males 51.22 per 
cent., females 48.78 per cent, or 105 males to 100 females. 

" Bearing in mind the proposition stated in last year's report, that ' the 
proportion of the sexes at birth depends upon the location, occupation, and 
sanitary condition of a community, the proportion of males being greatest 
where all circumstances are most favorable to health and prosperity,' the 
proportions for the year 1856, would indicate an unusually healthy condi- 
tion of the city, 

" The proportion of the sexes born in Providence during two years was : 

" In 1855, males 50.44 per cent. ; females 49.56 per cent. 
In 1856, males 53.19 per cent. ; females 46.81 per cent."* 

The table of births for the State of New Jersey, abeady given, divides 
the sexes into 6,153 males, 5,646 females, and 803 not designated, or 108 
male to 100 female births. 

The number of births returned under the registration system of Vir- 
ginia for 1853, was 31,518, divided as follows: 

Males, 16,180 

Females, 14,160 

Unknown, 1,178 

Total, . 31,518 

* 2d Report of E. M. Snow, M. D., Registrar of Providence. 



72 PROPORTION OF THE 

Or in the proportion of 114 males to 100 female births. The returns 
embrace the births in 114 out of 137 counties, leaving 23 counties from 
which returns were not received. The births embraced in the census report 
for 1850, were 25,153. A comparison with this return renders it probable 
that the number of births returned by the 114 counties in 1853 is tolerably- 
accurate. 

From the returns of Kentucky the following table is deducted : — 



Births in 


1852. 


1853. 


Males to 100 Females. 


Males, 


13,625 


13,027 


112 


Females, 


12,109 


11,805 


110 


Unknown, 


172 


173 




Total, . 


25,906 


25,005 





A very remarkable feature connected with the returns of births in Vir- 
ginia and Kentucky is the large preponderance of male over female births. 
It unfortunately happens that no returns are made by other neighboring 
States by which to institute a comparison. There are some reasons for 
placing reliance upon the accuracy of these returns so far as they have been 
rendered. The inhabitants of both of these States are, for the most part, en- 
gaged in agricultural pursuits, the number of manufacturies and populous 
towns being comparatively small, and the residents of the country greatly 
preponderating over those of towns. Agriculture in these States, as indeed 
in all southern States, is considered a dignified occupation, while commerce 
and the mechanic arts are deemed ignobler The direct effect of this state 
of things is to entice into the pursuit of agriculture the most intelligent 
and cultivated class of the community and to leave in town those who are 
least so. 

There is consequently scattered over every portion of Virginia and 
Kentucky an agricultural population of high intelligence, who are the 



SEXES AT BIRTH. 



73 



patrons of the humbler classes surrounding them, and take great interest in 
the most minute details of their daily concerns. An individual engaged in 
collecting statistical information among such a population as has been de- 
scribed, would find no difficulty in obtaining the facts from those whose 
opinions were entitled to confidence. 

From this it would appear extremely probable, that the sex in the 
cases of reported births, was correctly ascertained. But the wide disparity 
in the proportion of the sexes at birth, observed in Kentucky in the two 
years of registration, being no less than two per cent., together with the 
great difference, existing between this State and Virginia, as compared with 
the more northern States, where births have been recorded, as indeed with 
the observations of the European States, would lead to the belief that some 
error existed which time and careful scrutiny may hereafter develope. 

The city of Charleston, in South- Carolina, while taking a census in 
1848, obtained by the personal enquiries of its agents the number of births 
which had occurred in the year for which the census was taken, the results 
of which are as follows ; — 



Warda. 




WHITES. 


SLAVES. 


FREE COLOHED. 


Males. 


Females. 


Totals. 


Males. 


Females. 


Totals. 


Males. 


Females. 


Totals. 


1 
2 
3 
4 


40 
45 
70 
74 


30 
49 
76 
81 


70 

94 

146 

165 


44 
78 
50 
86 


44 
61 
45 
76 


88 
139 

95 
162 


4 
10 

4 
13 


2 
7 
7 
9 


6 
17 
11 
22 


Total.... 


229 


236 


465 


258 


226 


484 


31 


26 


56 



As the facts here exhibited are somewhat curious, it has been deemed 
advisable to allow the report from which they are taken to explain them for 
itself It may be proper to remark, that the census report and accompany- 
9 



74 



BIRTHS IN CHARLESTON. 



ing tables were prepared by Dr. J. L. Dawson, who has for many years held 
the post of City Register, and as such has prepared the yearly bills of 
mortality, and Dr. H. W. De Saussure, editor of the Southern Journal of 
Medicine and Pharmacy. 

" The proportion which the male bear to the female births, in each class 
of the population, appears from the following table : — 



Male, 
Female, 



Male, 
Female, 



Births. 


Proportion. 


229 


49.24—97.00 : or 100. 


236 


50.T6 100. to 103.00 


465 


100.00 


SLAVES. 




Births. 


Proportion. 


258 


63.31=100.00 : or 112.03 


226 


46.69 87.58 to 100. 



484 



1000.00 



Male, 
Female, 



FKEE COLOKED. 

Births. Proportion. 

. 31 55.36=100. : or 124.01 
25 44.64 80.63 to 100. 



56 



100.00 



"It appears that during the year 1848, the male births among the 
white population were less by 3 per cent, than the female. This must be 
considered an exceptional year in this respect, for in almost all years in 
which enumerations of the population have been made, the males have 
exceeded the females, and a reference to the subject of ' public health ' will 
show that the male deaths exceed the female. As there are no other years, 
however, with which the births can be compared, the present proportions 



MALE AND FEMALE POPULATION. 75 

must remain, to be corrected by future observations. Among the slave and 
free colored population, the male exceed the female births by 13, and 20 
per cent. ; there must, however, be a greater mortality of males in these 
classes at the early ages than of the females — for at 10 years the females 
exceed the males among the slaves, and the female free colored exceed the 
males at all ages."* 

With the exception of the births of the white population of Charleston, 
which may be looked upon as an anomaly, and not in conformity with 
the laws which regulate the proportion of the sexes in that city even, 
all the records adduced show a preponderence of male over female 
birthe sufficient, notwithstanding the higher rate of mortality prevailing 
among the male sex, to give them a slight advantage in numbers in each 
section of the country except the New England States, where the female 
population is in excess, as will be seen by the following table : — ■ 

Geographical Divisions. Males. 

New England, 1,346,680 

Middle States, .... 3,186,102 

Southern States, .... 1,154,010 

South-Western States . . 1,069,991 

JSTorth-Western, .... 3,135,333 

Territories and California, . 134,286 

Whether the ratio of increase and mortality, with slight variations, is 
uniformly the same under all varieties of climate, temperature, and indi- 
vidual relations, or whether the male sex is exposed under some circum- 
stances to a higher rate of mortality than the female, and the equality is 
maintained by an increased relative number of male births, are questions 
which the statistics of the United States at present collected, do not afford 
a solution for. Those of the different countries of Europe, although extend- 

* Census of Charleston, page 181. 



Females. 


Proportion of females 
to 100 males. 


1,358,415 


100.87 


3,112,945 


97.70 


1,137,156 


98.54 


980,791 


91.66 


2,888,030 


92.11 


49,829 


36.73 



76 HOrACKEB AND SADLER 

V 

■ing over a greater length of time, and possessing more exactness, are neces- 
sarily limited as to their range of climate, and could not answer this enquiry 
as satisfactorily as those of the United States, if they were equally exten- 
sive and reliable. 

But whether the laws which regulate the relative proportion of the 
sexes at birth, in old and new countries, in hot and temperate latitudes, in 
town and country, be diverse or the same, as an element of information and 
a matter for curious speculation it furnishes one of the most important 
enquiries connected with births, and is absolutely indispensable to a just 
estimate of population. 

" Taking the average of the whole of Europe," says Dr. Carpenter, 
"the proportion is about 106 males to 100 females. It is cmious, however, 
that this proportion is considerably different for legitimate and illegitimate 
births, the average of the latter being 102^ to 100, in places where the 
former was 105f to 100. This is probably to be accounted for by the fact, 
which is one of the most remarkable contributions that has yet been made 
by statistics to physiology, that the sex of the offspring is influenced by the 
relative ages of the parents. The following table expresses the average 
results obtained by M. Hofacker, in Germany, and by Mr. Sadler, in Britain, 
between which it will be seen there is a manifest correspondence, although 
both were drawn from too limited a series of observations. The numbers 
indicate the proportion of male births to 100 females under the several 
conditions mentioned in the first column : 

Hofacker. Sadler. 

Father younger than mother, . . 90.6 Father younger than mother, . 86.5 

Father and mother of equal age, . 90.0 Father and mother of equal age, . 94.8 

Father older by 1 to 6 years, . 103.4 Father older by 1 to 6 years, . 103.7 

" " " 6 to 9 « . . 124.7 " " " 6 to 11 " . . 126.7 

" " " 9 to 18 " . 143.7 " " " 11 to 16 " . 147.7 

" " " 18 and more, . 200.0 " " " 16 and more, . 163.2 



UPON THE SEXES AT BIRTH. 77 

From this it appears, that the more advanced age of the male parent 
has a very decided influence in occasioning a preponderance in the numbers 
of male infants, and as the state of society generally involves a condition of 
this kind in regard to marriages, whilst in the case of illegitimate children 
the same does not hold good, the difference in the proportional number 
of male bii'ths is accounted for. We are not likely to obtain data equally 
satisfactory in regard to the influence of more advanced age on the part of 
the female parent as a difference of 10 or 15 years on that side is not so 
common. If it existed to the same extent, it is probable that the same law 
would he found to prevail in regard to female children born under such 
circumstances as has been stated with regard to the male ; — namely, that 
the mortality is greater during embryonic life and early infancy, so that the 
preponderance is reduced."* 

., A question akin to the one just discussed, and indeed necessarily 
linked with it is, that of the proportion of still-born to those who survive 
and the relative proportion of the sexes among them. In regard to both 
the absolute number of still-born and their relative division into sexes the 
returns are exceedingly incomplete. The State of Massachusetts is now 
enabled to furnish the most complete records, but even among the or- 
dinarily exact statistics of that State, in a very large proportion of cases, 
the sex of the still-born child has been overlooked. 

During the five years, 1849-53, in which 142,830 living births are 
recorded, there occurred 2,618 still-born cases, of which 827 were males 
and 574 females, and 1,217 where sex is not designated : — 

x, AT Still-born. Proportion of Still-born 

^°™ ^li^«- to eacb 10,000. 

142,830 2,618 180 

" It has been a subject of complaint in nearly every report, that sufii- 

* Carpenter's Physiology, p. 1014. 



78 NUMBER OF STILL-BORN 

cient pains have not been taken in ascertaining the ses and other particu- 
lars relating to stillborn children. A very little labor would ensure more 
accurate returns than are now had on this particular, which is of consider- 
ably more importance in vital and mortuary statistics than is generally 
attributed to it by those who have little or no interest in investigations of 
this sort. As far as results have been obtained that can be relied upon, it is 
very certain that the prevailing sex in this Commonwealth has been males. 
It is hoped that future abstracts will show that more regard is beginning to 
be felt on this subject of statistical inquiry."* 

The returns from Virginia show the following results : — 

-n ,,. ofii 1, Proportion of Still-born 

Born Alive. Still-born. to each 10,000. 

31,518 836 268 

The registration report of Kentucky for 1852, contains, in round 
numbers, 800 cases of still-born children. The report, in alluding to this 
portion of the return remarks, that the still-born certainly appear to be in 
large proportion— no less than 3.09 per cent, of all the births. This may be 
so, yet there is reason to believe that it is too large, because a number of 
children are returned as still-born who have names. There is reason to 
believe that a number of assessors mistook the precise import of the terms 
"alive" and " dead," and returned as dead those which were dead at the 
time of making the assessment, f 

The number of still-born returned for 1853, is 633 ; of which 467 were 
whites and 166 colored: — 

BornAlire. Still-born. Proportion of Still-born 

to each 10,000. 

Whites, . . . 19,796 467 228 

Colored, . . 5,209 166 313 



Total . . . 25,005 633 252 



* 14th Registration Report for Massachusetts, p. 192. 
f Registrar Report for Kentucky for 1862, page 105. 



TO THE LIVING BIRTHS. 



79 



White, 
Colored, 

Total, 



SEX OF STILL-BOEN. 






Males. Females. 


Unknown. 


Total 


2Y0 191 


6 


467 


90 12 


4 


166 



360 



263 



10 



633 



For the purpose of enabling a comparison to be instituted between the 
relative proportion of still-born to the living births in this country and 
Europe, the following tables have been introduced. 

ABSTEAOT OF THE BIETHS IK PKTJSSIA, FEANCE,' SAXONY AND BELGIUM. 



Prussia (1820-34)— Males, . . . 
Females, . . 

Total, ■ , . 

* France (1842.)— Males, 

Females, . 



Total, 



• ■ 



t Austria (1834-7-9.)— Males, 

Females, 

Total, 

X Saxony (1832-41.)— Males, 

Females, 

Total, . 

§ Belgium (1842.)— Males, 

Females, 

Total, . 



Births. 


still-born. 


3,906,644 


147,705 


3,686,473 


109,363 


7,593,017 


257,063 


506,809 


17,969 


. 476,587 


12,397 


982,896 


30,366 


1,259,372 




1,189,627 




2,448,999 


30,147 


338,239 


17,618 


317,102 


12,839 


. 655,341 


30,457 


70,676 


3,196 


. 67,459 


2,336 



138,135 



5,532 



* M. Mor6au de Jounes. f Beecher, pp. 259-261. % Hoffman. § Census. 



80 RELATIVE PROPORTION OF STILL-BORN 

The annexed table from an excellent article on Infantile Mortality, by 
Dr. Tripe, shows the percentage of males and females among the still-born 
in the countries mentioned : — 

Percentage. 



Males. Females. Males. Females. 

France (three years) . . 67,356 46,637 100.0 69.2 

Austria (four years) . . 25,288 17,351 100.0 68.6 

Belgium 38,312 28,359 100.0 74.0 

Saxony (ten years) . . 17,618 12.839 100.0 72.9 

Prussia (three years) . . 24,838 19,036 100.0 76.6 

"The results of this table," adds Dr. Tripe, "are very striking, for we 
see that to each 1000 males who are still-born, there are in France only 692, 
in Austria 686, in Prussia 766, in Belgium 740, and in Saxony 729, still-born 
females. The variations in the ratios are by no means great, and they are 
yet smaller in each country during a period of years than those shown in 
the above table for diJfferent countries. This cannot be proved here, for 
want of space. It will be noticed that the variation does not amount to five 
and a half per cent., although the statistics are collected from such different 
nations and races ; showing that the law is general, and that the cause of 
the excess' of male deaths over those of females commences at the earliest 
period of life, and diminishes, as we have already shown, as age advances, 
even from the first month, and most probably week, of extra uterine life. 

" This opinion receives very strong confirmation by a comparison of 
the ratios of still-born male and female children with those of children who 
die during the first month. We find in Belgium that the proportion of 
still-born female childi-en to that of males is 740 to 1000 ; whilst that of 
deaths under one month old is 749 to 1000; and in England (years 
1839-44) 765 to 1000."* 



* Brit, and Foreign Med-Chi. Review for April, 1857, p. 348. 



Born alive. 


still-born. 


Proportion of still- 
born to each 10,000. 


U,95i 


1269 




282 


43,078 


963 




217 


88,032 


2205 


250 



IN EUROPEAN STATES. 81 

Among the earliest records of tlie proportion of still-born to those born 
alive, are those given by Mr. Wargentin, in 1776, of the births in Sweden 
and Finland, for nine years, ending in 1763. During these nine years there 
were — 



Males, 
Females, 



These results are interesting as a standard of comparison, because they 
were made at a period of time comparatively remote from the present, and 
during the interval which has elapsed many changes aa'e supposed to have 
been introduced into the practice of obstetrics, by means of which labor 
is facilitated, and the life of the foetus placed in less jeopardy. Yet a 
comparison of the returns in both countries shows about the same results, 
and certainly does not furnish as strong an argument in favor of the advance 
of obstetrical skill as might naturally have been anticipated. In this respect, 
the returns from Virginia and Kentucky are less favorable than those from 
Massachusetts ; for while the former assimilate very nearly to those derived 
from Sweden, by Wargentin, the latter exhibit a decided diminution in the 
number of still-born. The inference is that the Massachusetts returns are 
more complete in this respect, than those of Virginia and Kentucky. 

It has been observed that in every return the number of still-born 
males was greater than that of the females. Dr. Clark, the physican to the 
Dublin Lying-in Hospital, contributed a paper to the Royal Society, which 
appeared in the seventy-sixth volume of the Philosophical Transactions, 
assigning as a chief cause for the greater number of male than female 
deaths, the increased size of the male foetus, which not only requires more 
10 



82 DR Clark's theory. 

sustenance before birth, than the female, but has greater difficulties to 
encounter in the process of parturition. Whenever therefore any delicacy 
of constitution on the part of the mother, prevents her from yielding to 
the foetus in utero a proper amount of nutriment, or a physical malformation 
presents an obstacle at the moment of birth, the chances of death are 
largely increased in the male child over those of the female. 

These observations are undoubtedly correct, and have received the 
confirmation of subsequent writers. An additional cause assigned by Dr. 
Clark in the same paper, although supported by some plausible reasons, 
does not appear to be quite so clear. This is that the greater size of the 
male child renders it more liable to the inherited infirmities of the father, 
as well as to the results of the defective constitution of the mother. 



EFFECT OF THE SEASONS ON CONCEPTION. 83 



CHAPTER VIII. 

THE EFFECT OF SEASONS ON CONCEPTION. 

The effect of tlie seasons in influencing conception, is as elsewhere 
quite manifest in the returns of births in the United States. 

The table for five years, prepared by Dr. Curtis, from the Eegis- 
tration Reports of Massachusetts, (page 68,) shows that the largest number 
of births occurred in March, and that the next months most prolific in 
births were August and September. From this isolated example, the 
inference might be drawn that June was the month most favorable to 
conception, and that November and December were the next most favor- 
able months, these being the months in which the conceptions took place 
which produced the births in March, August and September. The least 
number of births occurred in May and June, fi-om which it might be infer- 
red that August and September were the least prolific months in the year. 

Dr. W. L. Sutton, of Georgetown, Kentucky, has prepared a table, 
from the births occurring in that State in 1853, to illustrate this point, which 
is annexed : — 

Date of Conception. 

March, .... 

February, 

January, . . . . 



Male. 


Female. 


1,431 


M 1,303 


1,162 


1,038 


1,111 


1,035 



Male. 


Female. 


1,128 


984 


1,133 


966 


• 1,106 


897 


1,024 


906 


9m 


9Y2 


960 


896 


98Y 


863 


919 


886 


m 909 


m842* 



84 EFFECT OF THE SEASONS 

Date of Conception. 

November, .... 

December, .... 

June, . . . ■ . 

July, .... 

August, .... 

May, .... 

October, .... 
September, 

April, .... 

From this table it would appear the month of March was by far the 
most prolific, and that February and January followed next in succession ; 
while October, September, and April appear to be the least prolific. 

The wide difference in the proportion of births in the different months 
of the year observable in this table, is somewhat remarkable, and would 
appear to indicate that the returns upon which it is based are far from com- 
plete. 

By a comparison of the results of these tables, it will be seen that the 
prolific months in that prepared by Dr. Curtis are not the same as in that 
arranged by Dr. Sutton. Upon this point there appears to be no corres- 
pondence, and it would seem that the most reasonable inference to be 
drawn from the facts as thus enunciated, is that if fecundity is in^enced 
by particular seasons, and in this respect is amenable to fixed laws, then the 
laws which so regulate it are not the same in the States of Massachusetts 
and Kentucky. 

Mr. Milne, for the purpose of determining this question, arranged two 
tables, one for Sweden and Finland, based upon the observations of Mr. 
Meander, which gives the annual averages of conceptions for twenty years, 
terminating with 1795 ; the other for Montpellier, in the South of France, 

* M indicates Maximum, and m minimum, in all these tables. 



ON CONCEPTION. 



85 



upon data procured from the Memoir of M. Morgue, which gives the 
averages of conceptions for twenty-one years, terminating with 1792. 

A table formed of these is introduced, in order that a comparison may 
be made between them and those of Drs. Curtis and Sutton. The com- 
parison is valuable, not only because of the space of time which has 
elapsed between the making of the observations, but also because they 
were made in countries bearing a parallel to each other in point of geo- 
graphical position ; thus Sweden may be said to possess a climate some- 
what similar to Massachusetts, while Montpellier and Kentucky correspond 
with each other in this respect : — 



TABLE SHOWIN& THE INTENSITY OP FECUNDIir IN EACH MONTH. 


In SwmEN AMD FlNLASD. 


Month. 


In Montpkluer, France. 


Marriages. 


Conceptions. 


Conceptions. 


Marriages. 


Male. 


Female. . 


Female. 


Male. 


1519 
1385 
1369 
1792 
1393 
1957 
1071 

m 732 
1539 

M4267 
3251 
3798 


4276 
4210 
4287 
4452 
4377 
4525 
4342 
3889 
3696 

m3632 
3927 

M4708 


4106 
4020 
4066 
4277 
4213 
4376 
4163 
3763 
3547 

m3508 
3726 

M 4485 


January, 

Febry. 

March, 

April, 

May, 

June, 

July, 

August, 

Sept. 

October, 

Nov. 

Dec. 


1044 

M1185 

1067 

1145 

. 1090 

989 

916 

m 863 

866 

940 

1007 

1033 


1156 

M1221 

1173 

1210 

1183 

1056 

918 

934 

m 909 

993 

1086 

1080 


596 
M1155 
159 
403 
526 
472 
447 
434 
523 
444 
625 
m 142 


24,073 


50,321 


48,250 


Total, 12,145 


12,919 


5,926 



Proportion of those born alive to the still-born in Sweden : — 



Males, 

Females, 

Total, 



) as 10,000 \ 



310 
238 
276 



Still-born males to stillborn females, average 13,558 to 10,000 



Upon an examination of the Swedish table, it will be seen that in the 
month of December the greatest number of conceptions took place, while 



86 EFFECT OF THE SEASONS 

the fewest occurred in September and October. The Montpellier table, on 
the contrary, exhibits the largest number in February, and the smallest in 
August and September. Now, there does not appear to be any more corres- 
pondence, in the maximum periods of conception, between Sweden and the 
South of France, than there is between Massachusetts and Kentucky ; but if 
a comparison be made between Sweden and Massachusetts, and a similar 
one between Montpellier and Kentucky, it will be seen that in both instances 
there is a remarkable identity between them. In Sweden and Massachusetts 
the month most favorable to conception is December, while in Kentucky 
the largest number occurred in March, and in Montpellier in February. 

The isolated facts connected with the births of Kentucky for a single 
year, and those of Massachusetts for five years, do not furnish sufficient 
grounds upon which to found a conclusion as important as this, yet when 
taken in connection with other circumstances attendant upon the movements 
of population, it seems difficult to resist the conclusion, that in different 
latitudes there are different laws affecting the human species, beginning 
with conception and terminating with the last moment of existence. 

Mr. Milne, whose opinions are usually adopted with great caution, and 
are entitled to the highest respect, sees, in the tables he adduces, decided 
evidence of the influence of the seasons upon conceptions, and concludes 
that if it were not for the disturbing element of marriage, which is not so 
accurately regulated as that of births, this influence would be still more 
manifest. 

" The rate of frequency of the conceptions in Sweden does in fact come 
twice in the year to a maximum, and twice to a minimum. Taking the 
totals for an example, it will be found that having been at a maximum in 
December, they begin the year by decreasing, and continues to fall till 
February, when they attain their first minmum ; then rise till June, 
when they are at their first maximum from that time they continue to fall 



ON CONCEPTION. 87 

till October, wlien they are at the minimum of the whole year, and from 
thence they rise till December, when they attain to the maximum of the 
year. '' 

If the table of Massachusetts were substituted for that of Sweden, and 
analyzed by the above quotation from Milne, it would be found to corres- 
pond in all its parts, and to present a parallelism too exact in detail to be 
otherwise than the result of a fixed law, which operates at the present day 
upon a population far removed from the scene of the original observations, 
and which had scarcely an existence at the time they were made, as it did 
in the last century upon the inhabitants of Sweden. 

And although the correspondence in detail between Montpellier and 
Kentucky is not as exact as that between Sweden and Massachusetts, yet it 
is sufiiciently so to seem to indicate the direction of a general principle, and 
it is more than probable that when the returns of Kentucky shall have 
attained the exactness which characterizes those of Montpellier, and cover a 
suf&cient space of time to give them authority, they will develope with 
greater exactness the operations of this law. 

The opinion is entertained by Mr. Milne, that if it were not for the 
derangement produced in the movements of conceptiop. by marriage, that 
the maximum would occur about midsummer instead of the winter months, 
as shown by the European tables above inserted. 



* Milne on Annuities, p. 603, 



88 



RELATIVE PROPOETION OF MARRIAGES. 



CHAPTER IX. 



MARRIAGES. 



The number of marriages to that of births is about one of the former 
to four of the latter, yet notwithstanding their small number, the irregu- 
larity of their distribution is supposed to exert such an influence over the 
natural order of bii-ths as to disturb, in the manner heretofore indicated, 
the effect of the different periods of the year upon them. The Swedish 
and Montpellier tables are accompanied by a column giving the number of 
marriages which took place in each month, based upon the same elements 
of calculation as the columns of births, for the purpose of illustrating their 
effect upon births. 

Subjoined will be found a table of the marriages which occurred in 
Massachusetts for twelve years, ending 31st December, 1855, so arranged as 
to indicate the number in each month, and a comparison of the whole with 
the last year. The number of marriages thus tabulated amount to 105,700. 
This number although small when placed in comparison with those em- 
braced in many of the tables of the older countries of Europe, and indeed 
with that of the Swedish tables already introduced, exhibits with tolerable 
certainty, the habits of the population in this regard upon whom the selec- 
tion of time mainly depends. 



IN THE DIFFERENT MONTHS. 



89 



January. 
February 
March . . 
April . . . 
May .... 
June. . . . 

July 

August . 



1855. 


12 Years. 


Average. 


1,131 


9,311 


776 


1,001 


7,088 


591 


m658 


m5,806 


m484 


i.c-ze 


8,829 


736 


1,118 


9,645 


804 


900 


8,152 


679 


896 


7,160 


596 


824 


6,906 


576 



Months. 



September 
October . . 
November 
December 
Unknown 

Totals. 



1,038 

1,229 

Ml 516 

893 

46 



12,329 



12 Years. 



9,037 

10,824 

M13,984 

8,313 

605 



105,700 



Average. 



754 

903 

Ml,166 

693 

50 



While this table exhibits great similarity of results so far as particular 
months are concerned, yet it shows a great disproportion in the number 
of marriages in the different months. The largest number took place 
uniformily, throughout the whole period of twelve years, in the month of 
November, while the least occurred in March. 

The following table, showing the number of marriages which took 
place in Kentucky, in 1852 and 1853, and the months in which they were 
solemnized, indicates December as the maximum, and July as the minimum 
months : — ■ 



January, 

February, 

March, 

April, 

May, 

June, 

July, 

August, 

September, 

October, 

November, 

December, 

Unknown, 



Total, 



1852. 


1853. 


348 


346 


35T 


365 


398 


435 


326 


304 


272 


316 


300 


294 


283 


276 


390 


435 


521 


499 


581 


604 


558 


515 


755 


65'6 


16 


116 



5,105 



5,161 



11 



90 SEASON OP MARRIAGE INFLUENCED 

The preference for particular montlis would appear to indicate that 
some peculiarity in the habits and customs of the inhabitants of the different 
States lay at the foundation. Mr. L. Shattuck assigns as a reason, that 
November is, the month in which occurs the New England festival of 
Thanksgiving, when family circles meet together and are presented to their 
newly-formed marriage connexions. 

This period of festivity, so universally observed by the inhabitants of 
New England, is almost entirely disregarded by the residents of the South- 
ern States. Dr. Sutton supposes that the festivities of Christmas may induce 
the more frequent selection of December, in Kentucky. It is quite certain, 
that in the two States whose marriage returns are here given, the festive 
period takes place in different months, and this difference is manifest in the 
number of marriages which occur in each, at the season which is celebrated 
with most glee by its inhabitants. 

The large number of marriages among foreigners, included in the Mas- 
sachusetts returns, could not have been influenced by this custom, which is 
purely local, and derives its origin from the early Puritan settlers of New 
England. An examination of the returns in detail, for each registration 
year, shows that the marriages among the foreign residents are not largely 
in excess at this period, as are those among the natives of New England, 
which would seem to corroborate the correctness of the cause assigned by 
Mr. Shattuck, more particularly as similar causes are supposed to produce 
like results in other countries. 

Mr. Wargentin remarks, that there are always many more marriages 
contracted during the autumn and winter in Sweden, than in the spring and 
summer, because the harvest produces abundance, and the cattle are killed 
in autumn, so that the bulk of the people, who are neither sufficiently rich, 



BY NATIONAL FESTIVITIES. 91 

nor economical to maintain an equable expenditure, are then best able 
to give the entertainments that are customary on such occasions.* 

" And M. Mourgue informs us that at Montpellier, the month of Feb- 
ruary always furnishes the greatest number of marriages at the epoch la fin 
du Carnaval, and next to that the month of November, before the epoch 
ciUed les Avents.^j- The seasons which succeed both of these epochs are 
those of fasting, in which the Catholic Church, the prevalent one at Mont- 
pellier, discountenances as far as possible the solemnization of the rite of 
matrimony. Besides, the end of Carnival is a period of more boisterous 
hilarity than the Thanksgiving of New England or the Christmas holiday 
rejoicings of the Southern States. 

• The ages of the persons who contract marriage relations; furnishes 

a very important element in all questions tending to elucidate the influence 

which this compact has upon society. Upon this subject the Registrar 

General of England, with great propriety remarks, that " it is not a little 

remarkable, that although the increase of population and the influence of 

early and late marriages on the welfare of nations, have for the whole of 

the present century occupied public attention, and been made the basis of 

theories which have guided or based legislation, no provision has yet been 

made for determining the simplest fundamental facts — the foundation of all 

reasoning on the subject — such as the age of mothers, of children, and the 

numbers of married and single persons at the several periods of life. Upon 

many of these points the greatest ignorance prevails, writers on population 

depending on rough approximations, derived from scanty, imperfect and 

erroneous data, because the censuses and registers have not yet been tajvcn 

and abstracted upon a comprehensive and well considered plan." 

These observations, which had exclusive reference to the English 

* Memoirea abi'eges de TAcademie de Stockholm, p. 32. 
I Milue on Annuities, p. 501. 



92 



AGES OF PERSONS MARRIED 



system of registration and mode of taking tlie census, at the time tliey were 
made, may be applied with equal force to the plan adopted by this Govern- 
ment for enumerating the population. In some of the continental States, 
not only are the ages of the parties who marry noticed, and their relative 
number to those in single life given, but the mother is followed in her 
subsequent married life, and her age re-noted at every successive birth of a 
child, so that it is possible to ascertain the average number of children born 
to each marriage, and the age of the mother at the period of the births. 
The value of the information thus given is evident, and there is no reason 
why similar results may not be obtained in the United States. 

The following tables exhibit the number at the several specified ages 
of each sex, who have been married in Massachusetts, for six yeai's and 
eight months, beginning May 1st, 1844, and terminating January 1st, 
1851 :— 





• AGES OP WOMEN. 


Ages of Men. 


o" 
■a 


CI 


S 


i 


2 

CO 


3 



i 


S 


s 


s 
S 


4 
s 

g 


s 





s 

2 




CO 

a 




a 


s ■ 


Under 20 

20 to 25, 

25 to 30, 

30 to 35...... 

35 to 40, 

40 to 45, 

45 to 60, 

60 to 65 

55 to 60, 

60 to 65...... 

65 to 70, 

70 to 75 

78 to 80, 

Over 80, 

Unknown, . . .. 


47 

566' 

208 

42 

9 

3 




183 

8710 

6186 

1637 

448 

137 

34 

17 

3 

3 

2 

15 


22 

1159 

3131 

1533 

589 

281 

92 

40 

13 

2 

2 

i 

'7 


1 
112 
397 
734 
457 

321 

162 

64 

23 

14 

2 

1 

i 

5 


19 

71 

120 

296 

206 

182 

103 

60 

19 

12 

4 


'3 

13 

42 

66 

146 

107 

104 

68 

44 

6 

10 

2 

1 


'3 

7 

19 

24 

65 

74 

65 

51 

17 

4 

1 


i 

3 
9 

24 
39 
43 
60 
36 
9 
3 


2 

2 

2 

10 

26 

24 

29 

6 

3 

1 


'2 

2 

6 

16 

23 

16 

7 

1 

1 


* ' 

3 

5 
1 
6 

4 
4 


•• 


1 
1 




6 

79 

67 

56 

13 

15 

6 

5 

2 

5 

1 

836 


688 

15,746 

11,950 

4655 

1978 

1172 

686 

460 

286 

229 

135 

57 

23 

5 

870 


Totiils, 


8788 


17,375 


6872 


2294 


1081 


591 


320 


217 


106 


73 


22 


8 


2 


1 


1091 


38,840 



A similar table, including similar results, for Kentucky, for the years 
1852 and 1853, are likewise subjoined : — 



IN NORTHERN AND SOUTHERN STATES. 



93 





AGES or WOMEN. 


Agis 






























OP 

Men. 


Whole 
No. 


Under 
20. 


20 to 25. 


25 to 30. 


30 to 35. 


35 to 40. 


40 to 45. 


45 to 50. 


SO to 55. 


55 to 60. 


60 to 65. 


C5 to 70. 


Over 
70. 


Dnk'n. 


Under 20 


614 


520 


167 


15 


5 




1 














4 


20 to 25, 


4732 


2577 


1822 


238 


48 


13 


4" 




3 








, , 






27 


25 to 30, 


2331 


98S 


1024 


251 


46 


10 


1 


1 
















10 


30 to 35, 


894 


267 


389 


142 


71 


10 


4 


1 


4 














6 


35 to 40, 


672 


83 


186 


105 


49 


33 


8 


4 


, , 








, , 






4 


40 to 45, 


296 


SO 


90 


52 


61 


36 


21 


3 


1 








, , 






2 


45 to 50, 


200 


8 


46 


39 


33 


39 


17 


5 


9 


2 












2 


50 to 55, 


148 


11 


21 


29 


23 


24 


17 


22 


2 








1 






2 


55 to 60, 


77 


2 


7 


10 


7 


16 


10 


15 


3 


5 












1 


60 to 65, 


66 


3 


4 


8 


5 


9 


8 


13 


10 


5 


2 


2 






2 


65 to 70, 


35 




3 


1 


2 


5 


7 


7 


6 


1 


1 


2 






1 


Over 70 


29 




3 


1 


2 


2 


6 


4 


1 


4- 


5 


5 






, , 


Unknown 


372 


17 


29 


7 




2 


•• 










•• 






315 


Total . . 


10,166 


4897 


3791 


900 


362 


199 


104 


68 


29 


17 


8 


10 


•• 


376 



And also a table, based upon similar results in Belgium, for the year 



1841 :— 





TOTAL MARRIAGES IN BELaiUM. 






Men. 


Women. 


Under 21, 


774 


2,831 


21 to 25, 


. 4,677 


7,421 


25 " 30, 


. 10,067 


9,082 


30 " 35, 


. 6,627 


4,928 


35 " 40, 


3,636 


2,791 


40 " 45, 


2,037 


1,477 


45 " 50, 


.■ . . 934 


753 


50 " 55, 


512 


357 


55 " 60, 


310 


126 


60 " 65, 


244 


67 


65 " 70, 


112 


28 


70 " 75, 


36 


13 


75 " 80, 


8 


2 


80 and upwards, . . 2 





29,876 



The foregoing tables, showing the results of the marriages contracted 



94 . . AGES OF FEMALES MARRIED 

ill the States of Massachusetts and Kentucky, so far as the age of the 
parties is concerned, and adapted from the Belgium returns, exhibit in a 
concise and admirable manner, the age and condition of the persons 
who have contracted this relation. It is hardly possible to devise a tabu- 
lated form which shall express the facts so clearly and concisely as the 
one just given. 

From the Massachusetts Returns it appears, that of the 38,840 females 
who formed marriage relations, 8,788 were under 20, 17,375 between 20 
and 25, 6,872 between 25 and 30, 2,294 between 30 and 35, 1,081 between 
35 and 40, and 2,437 above that age. Of the males, 688 were less than 20, 
15,746 between 20 and 25, 11,950 between 25 and 30, and 10,456 above 
that age. 

There are peculiarities which do not admit of tabulation, and yet 
are interesting. Dr. Curtis, in his remarks upon the marriages which took 
place in Massachusetts, mentions some of these : — 

" Age presents also quite an interesting topic for consideration. During 
' the twenty months we find marriages among persons of all ages between 

13 and 91. The youngest individual married was a female of 13 years, 
several instances of which occurred. The youngest male was 16, who mar- 
ried a female of 19 ; the youngest couple was a male of 17 and a female of 

14 ; a male of 20 and another of 25 married each a female of 13 ; a male 
of 19, one of 21, and another of 27, married ea,ch a female of 14; two 
males of 25 each, two of 28 each, one of 30, one of 35, and another of 47, 
married each a female of 15 ; and a bachelor of 50 married a girl of 19. 

" Although the male was usually the eldest of the allied couple, yet 
many instances happened where the reverse obtained ; thus we find a male 
under 20 married a female over 40 ; a bachelor of 24 married a widow of 
42 ; a bachelor under 35 married a widow over 60 ; and another bachelor 



IN MASSACHUSETT AND KENTUCKEY. 



95 



under 40 married a widow over 75. A female of 18 married the second 
time, and one of 59 married the Jifth time. A male of 30 married the third 
time. One of 36 and another of 45 married the fourth time each. Among 
those at later ages in life we find a male of 8 1 married a female of 69 ; but 
the oldest couple married were Mr. Calvin Kilborn, of Princeton, and Mrs. 
Susan Saunders, at the respective and respectable ages of 91 and 70. He 
is a farmer in good health, of sprightly habits and good mental faculties, 
still remembering the scenes and " incidents of travel" which he ex- 
perienced in 1777, when he went as a fifer at the Bennington Alarm. It 
seems worthy of notice that in this of&ce, and almost side by side, are the 
•official records of Mr. Kilborn's enlistment in Capt. John White's company 
which marched to Bennington in July, 1777, and also of his marriage in 
November, 1848, more than threescore and ten years having intervened 
between these interesting events. He has always been able to do the 
work on his farm to the present time, with but little assistance. 

" The following statement will be found to possess interest by showing 
the number and proportion of marriages at the different ages of the sexes 
during the last five years and eight months, viz., since May 1, 1854, 7229 
males and 7453 females, whose ages were not stated, have been omitted in 
the calculations : — 



'o d 


Males, 


401 


10,115 


7941 


2430 


1203 


748 


4S6 


322 


218 


172 


96 


67 


29 


5 


24,232 


Females, 


58-71 


11,313 


3761 


1329 


723 


450 


260 


174 


99 


47 


38 


14 


4 


1 


24,078 






o 




CO 


CO 






o 




CO 




o" 




o 

00 


o 




Ages, 


. . . . 


13 


O 


o 


o 


o 


o 


o 


o 


o 


s 


_o 


O 


o 


(U 


"3 






t3 


O 
CM 




o 

CO 




o 




o 




o 

CO 


CO 


C 




O 


o 




Males, 


1.06 


4=1.14: 


32.77 


10.04 


4.97 


3.08 


2.01 


1.33 


.90 


.69 


.39 


.28 


.12 


.02 


100. 




Females, 


24.40 


46.98 


15.58 


5.52 


3.00 


1.86 


1.01 


.72 


.41 


.19 


.16 


.06 


.02 




100. 



" The above abstract indicates, so far as can be illustrated by an 
analysis of upwards of 24,000 marriages, the ages of parties to which were 



96 AVERAGE AGE AT MARRIAGE. 

stated, that the probabilities of marriage under the age of 20 years are 
nearly fifteen times as great with females as they are with males, and that 
between the ages of 20 and 25 they are much nearer equal, though still 
somewhat in favor of the female ; but after the age of 25, till death, the 
probabilities of marriage are aboiit two to one in favor of the male. 

" Again we perceive above, that of all females married, the chances 
that this interesting event will take place prior to the age of 20, are about 
as one to four of all the probabilities that they will ever marry ; that is, 
when a female arrives at the age of 20 years and is unmarried, one quarter 
of the probabilities of her ever being married are gone. If she passes to 
the age of 25 unmarried, nearly tliree quarters of her probabilities are lost, 
and if she is unmarried at the age of 30, she has passed nearly nine-tenths 
of her chances of ever becoming a wife. The case is different with 
males, more than one-half of whose marriages occur subsequent to the 
age of 25. But the period of life between 20 and 25 appears the 
most probable of all the quinquennial periods of matrimonial alliances to 
both sexes."* 

The returns from Kentucky show that of the 10,106 females who were 
married in 1852 and 1853, 4397 were imder 20, and 3,791 between 20 and 
25. From this it appears that of all the females whose marriages were re- 
turned, 43.24 per cent, were under the age of twenty, and 37.29 per cent, 
between the ages of twenty and twenty-five, or 80.53 per cent, under the 
age of twenty-five. In Massachusetts but 24.40 per cent, of the females 
were married under 20, and 46.98 per cent, between 20 and 25, or 71.38 
per cent, under the age of twenty-five. 

These tables indicate a very marked difference between the Northern 
and Southern portions of the Union, in regard to marriage, if Massachusetts 

* 8th Massachusetts Registration Report, p. 99-100. 



IN DIFFERENT LATITUDES. 



1 



is to be considered a type of tlie former, and Kentucky of the latter, whicli 
must manifest itself in all the future movements of population, seriously 
affecting their births and deaths, and influencing in a very decided manner 
the relative probabilities of life among the natives of the one or the other 
sections of the United States. 

A comparison, instituted by Mr. Shattuck, between persons contracting 
marriage in Massachusetts and Belgium, for the first time, from dates 
akeady given, shows the average age in the two places to be — 

Belgium, .... 

Massachusetts, .... 

The elements upon which this computation was made, are derived from 
the Massachusetts Returns for 1845, and those of Belgium for 1841. 

A similar one, based upon the Kentucky returns, shows the average 



Males. 


Females. 


29.47 


27.43 


25.84 


22.fi9 



age at marriage to be — 








Males. 


Females. 




23.98 


21.03 



These tables show that in Belgium more men and women marry be- 
tween the ages of twenty-five and thirty, and in Massachusetts, between 
twenty and twenty-five, _than at any other period of life. In Kentucky, 
more women marry below twenty, and more men between twenty and 
twenty-five, than at any other age. Massachusetts is thus made to occupy 
an intermediate position between Belgium on the one hand, and Kentucky 
upon the other. The average age at marriage is found steadily to decline, 
so as to present the remarkable difference of 5.49 years among the males, 
and 6.40 years among the females, between Belgium and Kentucky. 

A natural deduction fi-om these premises is, that as women marry 
earlier, the number of children will be greater, and the sum of those 
12 



98 PHTSIOLOGICAL LAAVS IN 

wlio attain to maturity less than in those countries whose marriages are 
contracted at a more mature period. How far this result may be modified 
by a lower latitude, and a consequent increase of temperature, the means 
are not at hand for determining. 

The principle is well established in physiology, that the human body 
matures much sooner in warm countries than in cold, and that the female in 
the former reaches a physical development which enables her to assume the 
functions of a mother, at a much earlier age than in higher latitudes. In 
the tropical regions of Asia, for example, the female reaches a point of de- 
velopment at eight which in the more temperate latitudes of Europe and 
America is not attained until fourteen. A system of reasoning therefore, 
which would place the inhabitants of these extreme countries upon a 
parallel in this regard, would be fallacious, because as nature has in each 
surrounded the human species by a combination of circumstances, which 
are entirely different, the one from the other, so it has doubtless established 
a series of natural laws to govern and regulate the movements of the human 
race in each different latitude, or variety of climate under which they may 
be placed. 

Were it not for this compensation man must necessarily have been 
restricted to one particular belt of the earth's surface, instead of covering it 
all with his footsteps, and claiming the whole for his dominion. A limit is 
thus defined to the animal and the vegetable kingdoms. The lion and the 
elephant are never found to inhabit the same latitude as the ox and the 
sheep, nor are the latter ever associated in companionship with the rein- 
deer and the Polar bear. The banana and pine-apple never flourish in a 
temperate region, nor do the apple and peach survive transplanting to the 
frigid zone. In this extensive department of nature, a particular place is 
assigned to each distinct species of either kingdom, admirably adapted to 
the wants of its being, or the purposes it is intended to subserve. 



WARM AND TEMPERATE LATITUDES. 99 



Man alone is endowed with a capacity for universal migration. Pos- 
sessing no natural covering of his own, he is enabled in each latitude to 
adapt to himself that which is best suited to the climate. In the fiigid 
zone he invests himself with the skins of animals, covered with thick fur ; 
in the temperate latitudes, he fabricates a clothing from the wool of the 
sheep ; and under the influence of the intense heat of the tropics selects a 
light linen texture, or almost entirely dispenses with the use of external 

garments. 

These analogies are introduced for the purpose of exhibiting the great 
variety of circumstances under which man may be placed, and to serve as 
a caution against too hasty a generalization. It is true that the limits of the 
United States do not embrace the extremes of climate and temperature to 
which allusion has been made ; nor do the States of Massachusetts and Ken- 
tucky represent its extremes. It does, however, possess in this regard a 
range of latitude and variety of climate, not only more extensive than any 
other civilized country, but nearly equal to. that of all the countries of 
Europe, whose governments possess a system of registration. 

Moreover, as the changes of temperature are much greater in the 
United States than in those European countries, a knowledge of the move- 
ments of whose populations are revealed through their population returns, 
it follows that the changes of climate from warm to cold, and the reverse, 
are reached in traversing a less number of degrees of latitude in the United 
States than in Europe ; and hence while Massachusetts has all the character- 
istics of a northern climate, without its greatest intensity, so Kentucky pos- 
sesses, in a modified degree, the climatic influences of a Southern latitude. 

It must also be borne in mind that the climate of Europe and the 
United States are so different as not to be represented by the same parallels 
of latitude, and it has hence been seen that notwithstanding _ their dif- 
ferences in this respect the South of France and Kentucky, as southern 



100 IMPORTANCE OF 

localities, and Sweden and Massachusetts as northern ones, bear a marked 
correspondence with each other. 

If these observations have any force, they would lead to the belief that 
the striking differences which have thus far been seen to exist in the move- 
ments of the population of Massachusetts and Kentucky, are not accidental, 
but in accordance with the laws which regulate and control them respectively 
— that these laws have shades of variation as they are made to operate upon 
the inhabitants of various latitudes, and that similar results are not uniformly 
to be expected — that while nature has provided in the most wonderful 
manner for the maintenance of the species and the preservation of a just 
equilibrium among- the sexes, it has adopted different formulas to accom- 
plish this end for different circumstances. 

This is abundantly manifest in the difference of the rates of mortality 
between town and country populations, and the manner in which after a 
high mortality nature repairs the loss by an acceleration of the functions 
of reproduction, so that the ryamber lost by death is compensated for by the 
number of births. Now, if these differences are developed under different 
circumstances in the same locality, it is fair to infer that they are more 
likely to be developed in places whose latitude and climate have little or no 
correspondence with each other. Nothing short of an accurate and uniform 
system of registration applied to every part of the United States, and 
continued for a period sufficiently long to correct the errors which will 
unavoidably become associated with it can determine this question. In the 
meantime there is sufficient evidence to show that the laws which regulate 
the population of any given place in Europe, as Geneva, are not more 
admissible of general application in the United States, than they are in 
Europe, although a single place might doubtless be found where the iden- 
tity of movement would be as exact as in those of the places already put 
in comparison with each other. 



EXTENSIVE OBSERVATIONS. 101 

It is because these rules are not general in application, that whenever 
any considerable sum is at stake upon the expectation or value of life^ 
observations are made from various points and comparisons instituted 
between them. Milne did not rest satisfied with the quiet little town of 
Carlisle, embosomed in the centre of rural life, in England, or the accurate 
observations of that excellent old gentleman who officiated as its medical 
man (Dr. Heysham), but extended his enquiries on the one side to Sweden, 
and on the other to the south of Prance, and after becoming enriched with 
the labors of Nicander and Wargentin, in Sweden, and Mourgue, De- 
parcieux, St. Cyran, and Duvillard, in France, and in his mathematical 
deductions by Euler, La Place and Halley, produced his valuable work on 
Annuities, which is chiefly important because its range of enquiry is general, 
and its deductions extensive. 

The ratio of marriages to the population is found to vary in dif- 
ferent places. The Massachusetts returns give an average of one marriage 
to every 102 inhabitants of the entire State. In Suffolk county, in which 
Boston is located, the number was one in 64 ; while in Worcester county 
the number was one in 104, and in Dukes county one in 151. 

The registration report of Kentucky, in alluding to the number of 
marriages which took place in that State, says : "It appears that there were 
7,430 marriages in the State during the year 1852, of which 5,105 are 
returned by the assessors, leaving 2,325 or 39 per cent, unaccounted for. 
We had, therefore, one marriage to every 102.92 white persons in the 
State. The proportion varied very much in different counties. In Harri- 
son and Jefferson the proportion was one in 50.34, and 54.90 respectively; 
whilst in Simpson and Livingston, the proportion was one in 239 and 216 
respectively."* 

The clerks of the respective counties in the State of Kentucky, as of 

* 1st Registration Report of Keutucky, p. 105. 



102 MARRIAGE RETURNS 

many of the other States, issue a license authorizing the contemplated mar- 
riage to take place, which certificate is presented to the clergyman who 
performs the marriage ceremony. A record of the issue of the certificate is 
always made in the clerk's office, by which means it is possible to determine 
the number of marriages which have taken place. In this instance it 
appears to have furnished a check ujDon the records of the assessors, and 
shows that they failed to return 39 per cent, of the marriages which actually 
took place. The correction, it will be observed, is confined to the white po- 
pulation, and properly, because all the marriages noted were among this 
portion of the population ; the laws of the State of Kentucky, and indeed 
of all slave States, not recognising any legal ceremony, nor requiring any 
registration or certificate, in marriages among the colored inhabitants. 
Similar omissions, as to numbers, appear to have been made in the succeed- 
ing year, so that it is probable that the number of marriages which actually 
took place among the white population of the State, in two years, was 
about 15,996, or one marriage to every 100 of the white population. In 
regard to those marriages actually reported, there appears to exist no reason 
to doubt the accuracy of the returns as to age, or at least that they form 
as near an approximation as can reasonably be expected. 

As to the marriage returns embraced in the census for 1850, Mr. De 
Bow remarks : " The ratio of marriages is very nearly one person married 
to every two hundred persons, varying between the States from one to 316, 
as in Delaware, one to 150, as in New Mexico, as one in 192, as in Massa- 
chusetts, a sufficient proof of the incompleteness of the returns."* It was 
hardly to be expected that in this particular the census should afford 
perfectly reliable information, because the marshals whose duty it was to 
gather these statistics, entered upon their task, without previous guide or 

* Compendium of U. S. Census, 1850, p. 104. 



IN DIFFEKENT STATES. 



103 



direction. The returns, as given below, altliougli acknowledgedly incom- 
plete, are introduced as the best standard of comparison with those gathered 
in the several States at hand. 



states, &c. 

Alabama, 

Arkansas, 

California, 

Columbia, District of 

Connecticut, . 

Delaware, 

Florida, 

Georgia, 

Illinois^ 

Indiana, 

Iowa, 

Kentucky, 

Louisiana, 

Maine, 

Maryland, 

Massachusetts, 

Michigan, 

Mississippi, 

Missouri, 



Neither the marriage returns of Connecticut, which are included in 
the Registration returns, nor those of New Jersey, which are computed at 
4,242, appear to be more reliable than those returned by the marshals, and 
included in the United States census, from which it will be seen by com- 
parison they differ largely. 

The returns of Massachusetts and Kentucky, as corrected, furnish toler- 
ably correct information as to the relative proportion of marriages to their 
respective populations. It would be just to apply them to the whole Union, 



Married. 


States, &c. 


Married. 


3,940 
2,112 


New Hampshire, 
NewJei-sey, . 
New York, 


2,613 

. 3,719 

31,465 


373 


North Carolina, 


. 5,275 


3,213 


Ohio, 


22,328 


564 
431 


Pennsylvania, 
Ehode Island, . 


. 19,858 
1,327 


4,977 


South Carolina, 


. 2,005 


9,183 


Tennessee, 


7,872 


12,423 


Texas, . ... 


. 2,232 


1,824 


Yermont, 


2,653 


8,091 
2,890 


Virginia, 
Wisconsin, 


. 8,163 
3,015 


4,886 


m 


'Minnesota, . 


39 


3,703 


I- 


New Mexico, . 


916 


10,347 
4,257 




Oregon, 
Utah, . 


. 168 
404 


2,774 
6,989 


Total, 


. 197,029 



104 RATIO IN DIFFERENT COUNTIES. 

as fair representatives of distinct portions, wliicli would give a ratio of one 
marriage to eacli 101 of the population. This proportion is much greater 
than among the populations of any of the European States, which have ren- 
dered returns, except Russia, to whose population in some respects that of 
the United States bears a strong affinity. 

" Our returns (remarks the Rhode Island report) are inadequate to 
show what has been the real proportion of marriages to the population. 
But those who are acknowledged and recorded as having been made happy 
in this way, are, (if we take the population from the census of 1850,) in 
the last seven months of 1853, at the rate of one for every 91.99 in a 
year, and in 1854, one for every 70.4G. From the whole population, 
however, we ought, perhaps, to subtract that of towns which made no 
returns of marriages, so as to base our calculation on the ' represented 
population.' Doing this, the ratio would be, for the last seven months of 
1853, at the rate of one to 74.36 in a year, and for 1854, one person 
married in every 64.71. In the first report, it was one to 81.636. * 

In England, there were living to each marriage, . . . 131 persons. 
Austria, " " " " « ... 124 " 



France, " " <' " « ... 121 

Prussia, " " " « « ... 113 

Eussia, " " " « « ... 90 






* 2d Registration Report of Rliode Island, p. 23. 



STATISTICS OF MORTALITY. 105 



CHAPTER X. 



MORTALITY. 



The statistics of mortality are much more palpable in their immediate 
results, to those who do not directly .concern themselves with the move- 
ments of population, than either those of births or marriages, and they have 
consequently not only attracted a larger share of public attention, but have 
likewise induced a larger amount of municipal and State legislation. There 
is scarcely to be found a populous town, in any country, marked by a high 
degree of civilization, which does not preserve a record more or less perfect 
of the deaths which take place among its inhabitants. 

In most of the populous places in the United States, these mortuary 
■egisters cover a comparatively large number of years, and it is therefore 
no difficult task to ascertain the rate of mortality peculiar to each, and with 
some degree of precision the ages upon which this mortality falls. The 
outlets of human life, in the guise of various diseases, are likewise taken 
notice of, to a sufficient extent, to mark the influence of the locality, if any 
peculiarity exists, upon its inhabitants, and to determine the species of 
disease most fatal to its population. 

In country districts, previous to the establishment of the system of 

registration, so far as it at present prevails, as a general rule, no mortuary 
13 * . 



I 



106 MEANS OF DETERMINING MORTALITY 

records were kept, and there consequently existed no means of determining 
their mortality, or standard by which the relative value of life in town and 
country could be measured. The only information at present in existence 
concerning the number of deaths which take place in the rural districts of 
the United States, is to be found in the returns of the States which have 
adopted a system of registration, and the marshal's returns to the general 
government, included in the census for 1850. 

As to the first of these means of determining the rate of mortality 
among the rural population of the United States, it is perhaps sufficient to 
'say that in but seven out of the thii'ty-one States comprising the Union, is 
this system of registration in operation at all, and in some of those in which 
it does exist the returns are so imperfectly made as to deprive them of much 
of their value. 

In regard to the enumeration, as made by the agents of the general 
government when taking the census of 1850, it is quite certain that it does 
not include all the deaths which occurred during the year prior to June 1st, 
1850. This subject has already been alluded to, and some reasons have 
been given for fixing the number of omitted deaths, at a certain increased 
ratio above those enumerated. 

In addition to the bills of mortality kept by the various cities in the 
United States, and which furnish an excellent means of determining the 
error in the census returns, and of correcting it, the registration returns of 
at least two of the States supply valuable data, and constitute excellent 
standards of comparison. There is no more reason for refusing credence to 
the facts connected with the deaths reported by the takers of the census, so 
far as age, and name of disease are concerned, than there is to any other of 
the various departments of enquiry which came within their cognizance. In 
the collection of facts, as extensive as those of the enumeration of the popu- 
lation of a country embracing many millions of inhabitants scattered over 



IN THE UNITED STATES. 



107 



a vast area, or of the various iucidents counected with this population, 
whether pertaining to industrial statistics, or the increase of their numbers 
by birth, and their decrease by death, extreme accuracy is not to be 
expected. A certain margin is always left to that inseparable incident to 
all human affairs and all human reasoning — probability, which it is the 
province of mathematics to bridle and reduce to subjection. 

Those fluctuations of population, which are aflected by births and 
marriages, with much less reliable data than is furnished by the records of 
mortality within reach, have, it is thought, been determined with consider- 
able precision, and there exists no reason why similar results may not be 
obtained so far as mortality is concerned. 

The aggregate of all the deaths included in the mortality statistics of 
the census for 1850, distributed among the States in which they occurred, 
is given in the annexed statement : — 



States. 



Alabama 

Arkansas. 

California 

Columbia, District of. . . . 

Connecticut 

Delaware 

Florida 

Georgia 

Illinois 

Indiana 

Iowa 

Kentucky 

Louisiana 

Maine 

Mar3'land 

Massachusetts 

Micbigan 

Mississippi 



812 
654 
794 
427 
,924 
644 
607 
,176 
,336 
,882 
,140 
,983 
,351 
,882 
,127 
,978 
,423 
,629 



Females. 



4,279 

1,367 

111 

419 

2,867 

565 

424 

4,749 

6,293 

6,826 

904 

7,050 

4,605 

3,752 

4,494 

9,426 

2,092 

4,092 



Aggregate 
Deaths. 



9,910 

3,021 

905 

846 

5.781 

1,209 

931 

9,925 

11,759 

12,708 

2,044 

16,033 

11,956 

7,584 

9,621 

19,404 

4,515 

8,721 



States. 



Missouri 

New Hampshire 

New Jersey 

New York 

North Carolina 

Ohio 

Pennsylvania 

Riiode Island 

South Carolina 

Tennessee 

Texas , . 

Vermont 

Virginia 

Wisconsin 

^ Minnesota . . 
Terri- I New Mexico, 
lories. (Oregon 

J Utah 



Males. 



6,864 
2,088 
2,513 

24,446 
5,227 

15,818 

15,532 
1,163 
4,207 
6,179 
1,641 
1,534 
9,735 
1,676 
19 

■ 680 

32 

131 



Females. 



5,438 

2,193 

2,952 

21,154 

4,938 

13,139 

13,019 

1,078 

3,839 

6,696 

1,368 

1,595 

9,324 

1,328 

10 

577 

15 

108 



Aggregate 
Deaths. 



12,292 

4,231 

6,465 

46,600 

10,165 

28,957 

28,551 

2,241 

8,047 

11,875 

3,067 

3,129 

19,069 

2,903 

29 

1,157 

47 

239 



Of the 323,023 deaths included in the foregoing abstract, 172,878 
were males, and 150,145 females. The difference between the male and 



108 MALE AND FEMALE MORTALITY 

female deaths being 22,733. •= The ratio per cent, of the male deaths to the 
males living being 1.46, and of the female deaths to the living females, 
1.32:— 

To 100 deaths of both sexes. 



. Whole H"o. Males. Females. Males. Females. 

323,023 172,878 150,145 54.02 45.98 

The proportion of deaths would be as 1,000 males to 919 females, or a 
difference of 81 ; which corresponds tolerably well with similar observations 
made in different countries, — the difference in some cases being somewhat 
over, and in others below, that observed in the United States. 

This excess of male over female deaths is of almost universal occur- 
rence. The returns of some of the States, however, show nearly an equal 
number of deaths for each sex, or, as in the case of New Hampshire and 
Vermont, a preponderance of female deaths over those of the male sex. In 
the former of these States the aggregate number of deaths was 4,231, of 
which 2,038 were males and 2,193 females, and in the latter 3,129, of 
which 1,534 were males and 1,595 females. 

The returns of Massachusetts give an aggregate of 19,404 deaths, with 
a preponderance of male deaths. The registration report increases the 
number for 1849 to 20,423, of which 10,019 were males, 10,208 females, 
and 196 of unknown sex. The report, in commenting upon this peculiar 
fact, states: "We hear notice that a majority among the deaths are females. 
This is true in reference to the mortality of the whole State. In the 
country districts alone, however, the preponderance of female mortality is 
so much greater than it is in the whole State, that it casts the balance on 
the other side in the' cities. If we knew the per cent which the number 
among the living of each sex bears to the other, in the cities and in the 
country, this might perhaps be accounted for in part, or in whole. It is to 
be presumed, that the female sex predominates in the State, and to a 



IN DIFFERENT STATES. 



109 



greater degree in the country than in the city. This is to be inferred from 
the fact, that although in 1849, among the births 52.06 per cent, were 
males, and 47.94 per cent, females, in the State, among the deaths under 
five years of age 53.82 per cent, were males, and 46.18 only were females; 
and that more males than females resort from the country to the city as resi- 
dents, while the proportion of the sexes, between those who leave the State 
and those who enter it, is probably such as to produce no great effect in 
this particular."* 

In the accompanying table the deaths which occurred under five years 
of age, and the aggregate for 1849, are so placed as to show the relative 
proportion of those who died under five years, and their sex, from which it 
would appear that although the whole number of deaths of all ages in- 
cluded a greater number of females than males, yet among those which took 
place in the first five years, the excess was among the males in the propor- 
tion, for the whole State, 53.82 per cent, to 46.18 of female deaths : — 



LoOiLITIES, 


.BmTHs. 


Deaths under Five Teaes. 


Whole Ndjibeb op Deaths. 




Number. 


Proportion. 


Number. 


Proportion. 


Number. 


Proportion. 




M. 


F. 


M. 


F. 


M. 


F. 


M. 


F. 


M. 


F. 


M. 


F. 




13,329 
5344 

7985 


12,273 
5106 
7167 


52.06 
51.14 
52.70 


47.94 
48.86 
47.30 


4169 
2117 
2052 


3577 
1875 
1702 


53.82 
53.03 
54.66 


46.18 
46.97 
45.34 


10,019 
4710 
5309 


10,208 
4617 
5591 


49.53 
50.50 
48.70 


50.47 
49.50 
51.30 


City, 

Country, 





" This abstract shows that the great excess of male mortality occurs in 
the earlier ages. Had we taken these who died under one year old, the ex- 
cess would have been still greater. The disparity will be seen as follows : — 





State. 


City. 


Cohntkt. 




Number. 


Proportion. 


Number. 


Proportion. 


Number. 


Proportion. 


Deaths under one ) Male, 

year of age, ) Females, .... 


1994 
1558 


66.13 
43.87 


996 
810 


55.14 
44.86 


998 
748 


57.16 
42.84 


Excess of Males, 


436 


12.26 


186 


10.28 


250 


14.32 





* Sth Registration Report for Massachusetts, p. 109. 



110 . MALE AND FEMALE MORTALITY 

" The excess of males was, in every 10,000 — 

T,- ,1 Deaths under Deaths undei' Total of 

one year. live years. Deaths. 

In the whole State, 412 1226 Y64 — 94* 

In the Cities, 228 1028 606 100 

In the Country, , 640 1432 932 —260* 

" There are various causes of death which press with unequal force upon 
the sexes. Those which seem to be the severest upon the male, are dis- 
eases of brain, exce|)t insanity ; diseases of the lungs, except consumption ; 
diseases of the heart, liver, most forms of fever, and the various causes of 
death, by violence. The mortuary tables of the last and former years also 
indicate quite clearly that those diseases which are more or less peculiar to 
the young, such as cholera infantum, croup, hydrocephalus or water on the 
brain, infantile diseases, and ulceration or canker, select a major part of 
their victims fi'om among the male population. The majority of deaths 
from cholera were males, while those from dysentery and typhus were 
nearly equal as to sexes, "f 

The annexed table, which exhibits the relative proportion of the sexes 
at all ages for the year included in the estimate of deaths as given above, 
will enable a comparison to be instituted into the relative number of the 
living and the dead : — 



Ages. 


Females to 
100 Males. 


Ages. 


Females to 
100 Males. 


Under 1, 


• • ■ ■ ■ • • 


60 to 60, . 


110.4 


1 to 6, 


98.2 


60 to 70, 


. 118.8 


5 to 10, . 


99.1 


70 to 80, . 


128.5 


10 to 15, 


. 97.7 


80 to 90, 


. 146.4 


15 to 20, . 


114.6 


90 to 100, . 


199.4 


20 to 30, . , . 


. 106.4 


100 and over. 


. 225.0 


30 to 40, . 


96.5 


Unknown, 


17.4 


40 to 50, 


99.8 







* Excess of Females. f Ibid. p. 110. 



IN DIFFERENT COUNTRIES. , 111 

Of all the 994,514 inhabitants of Massachusetts in 1850, 505,997 were 
females, and 488,517 males, being an excess of 17,480 females over males. 

The population of the District of Columbia consists of 18,494 males, 
and 19,447 females, or an excess of 953 females. The deaths which oc- 
curred in 1849, as taken from the Census Returns, were 846, of which 427 
were males, and 419 females. 

For the purpose of enabling a more general comparison to be made, a 
table is presented containing a summary view of the progress of population 
in the Kingdom of Wurtemberg, which, like Massachusetts and the District 
of Columbia, contains a larger female than male population : — 







WUETEMBEEG.* 










Population. 




Deaths. 


Year. 


Males. 


Females. 


Total. 


Males. 


Females. 


1833, 


773,561 


813,887 


. 1,587,448 


26,428 


26,066 


183i, 


776,965 


816,102 


1,593,067 


36,451 


35,252 . 


1835, 


786,619 


825,180 


1,611,799 


25,660 


45,505 


1836, 


793,973 


832,692 


1,626,665 


28,481 


26,663 


1837, 


798,259 . 


836,264 


1,634,523 


31,309 


30,402 


1838, 


806,311 


843,528 


1,649,839 


28,885 


27,540 


1839, 


815,057 


851,342 


1,666,399 


27,151 


26,327 


1840, 


824,457 


858,711 


1,683,168 


26,883 


26,216 


1841, 


831,656 


865,560 


1,697,216 


29,763 


28,598 


1842, 


840,339 


873,179 


1,713,518 


29,895 


28,976 



It will be seen, by an examination of these returns, that notwithstand- 
ing the fact that in Wurtemberg the female preponderates over the male 
sex, yet the largest number of deaths uniformly occur among the male por- 
tion of the population. 

From these comparisons it would appear that in Massachusetts, and in 
all probability in the contiguous States, a different rate of mortality affect- 
ing the relative proportion of male and female deaths occurs, fi-om that 

* Count Beroldigen. 



112 



MALK AND FEMALE MORTALITY 



■whicli is presented by the returns of the District of Coiumbia and the 
Kingdom of Wurtemberg, and which by comparison would probably be 
found more extensively to prevail. 

If no further data were offered, than that of the record of the deaths 
for 1849, it might reasonably be inferred that the enumeration was erro- 
neous and unworthy of credit ; but the additional evidence furnished by the 
consecutive registration returns of twelve years, places this question beyond 
the possibility of a doubt. These returns invariably show that more female 
than male deaths occur in each successive year — thus of the 20,301 regis- 
tered in 1853, 7,942 were males, 10,201 females, and 149 of unknown sex, 
being a preponderance of 268 female deaths. An abstract of the deaths of 
five years, including 1849, already alluded to, and 1853 just noticed, shows 
that of 92,174 deaths, the sexes of which were known, 45,855 were males, 
and 46,319 females. 

Now, the uniformity of these results is too exact, and the period of 
time covered by the observations too extensive to admit of any doubt as 
to their correctness, and it remains to be seen upon what principle this 
apparent disparity can be reconciled. Mr. Shattuck has constructed a table 
for two years, which so admirably demonstrates this disparity, that it is 
inserted without comment : — 





To EVERT 10,000 Males there were Females. 


Showing 
a diffeke>-ce 

OF 


Born. 


Died. 


In 1844 


9,508 
9,'744 


11,241 
10,978 


1,733 
1,234 


1845 





"It maybe asked," he remarks, "what becomes of this difference? 
The answer is principally to be found in the greater number of males than 



IN DIFFERENT COUNTRIES. 113 

females, which the State furnishes to people other parts of the Union, and 
to traverse the world. From the census of New York city, just published, 
it appears that 16,006 of its inhabitants were born in New England, and 
throughout all the Western States New England men are found. It would 
be an exceedingly interesting enquiry, how many emigrants have been fur- 
nished each year by Massachusetts. And if a good system of registration 
had been in operation, we should have been able to show how many have 
gone hence to spread the wholesome influence of the land of their birth in 
other States and other regions. If every 10,000 births furnish 1,250 
emigrants, the 25,000 births which have been estimated to take place in 
the State annually would furnish over 3,000 to spend the remainder of their 
lives in other lands than that of their nativity."* 

The census for 1850 gives the birth-place of each white inhabitant of 
the United States, so far as they could be ascertained ; and that they have 
been arrived at with tolerable correctness is evidenced by the fact, that of 
19,987,563 inhabitants, the places of birth of all except 39,146 are given. 

Of these, the whole number of persons born in Massa- 
chusetts is, . . 894,818 

Residing in " 695,236 



" in other States, 


. 


199,582 


Of which there are in Connecticut, . 


11,366 




" " " " Maine, 


16,535 




" " New Hampshire, . 


18,495 




" " Rhode Island, 


11,888 




" " " " Vermont, 


15,059 


73,343 






In other States and Territories, . 


. 


126,239 



* Letter of Mr. Shuttuck to the Secretary of State of Maesaohuaetts, p, 81. 

14 I 



114 EFFECT OF MIGRATION 

From these statistics, as well as those already given, it is evident that 
the population of Massachusetts has been affected in the most serious 
manner by the extensive emigration and immigration to which it has been 
subjected. There is probably not to be found upon record an instance 
of a population in which these two causes have so effectually combined to 
change the population of an entire State as that of the one under con- 
sideration. 

It is true, that in many of the States of the Union there exists a 
greater relative proportion of persons of foreign birth, than in that of Mas- 
sachusetts, as in Wisconsin, where the number of these is 34.94 per cent., 
or in California, where it reaches 24.15, or in the older State of New York, 
where it amounts to 21.04 of the whole population, instead of 16.18 per 
cent., as in the case of Massachusetts. But notwithstanding the immense 
emigration from New York, which has gone to swell the populations of 
Ohio, Michigan, Wisconsin, Indiana, Illinois, and the other free States in 
the valley of the Mississippi, or that from Virginia and North Carolina 
which has gone to people the new slave States of the Union, and which in 
many instances exceeds in relative proportion that of the emigration from 
Massachusetts, yet in no one has the combined effect of the emigration and 
immigration produced such palpable results in this latter State. 

How many natives of Massachusetts, in quest of a new home were 
males, and how many females, there is no means of determining. It is 
highly probable that many of those who changed their residence for that 
of neighboring States either went in families, or returned after a period to 
bring with them a partner who had engaged their affections before their 
migrations. Of these, the relative proportion of the sexes would doubtless 
be the same as was to be found in the State from which they emigrated. 
Among those who selected for themselves a residence in States more remote 
from that of their birth, the proportion of males was doubtless greater than 



ON MASSACHUSETTS. 115 

that of females, because the occupations and habits of life of the former fit 
them for more extensive migration than the latter, who for the most part 
are found to change their abode under the auspices of their male relatives, 
either as parents or husbands. 

Judging from the large number of marriages which occur among the 
residents of different States, a,s shown by the census returns for 1850, it is 
probable that comparatively few who were unmarried when they left home 
and made their residence in a remote State, ever returned to marry, and 
hence as the emigration from, is greater than the emigration to, most of the 
New England States, and doubtless embraces a larger proportion of males 
than females, the native female population must necessarily be in the 
ascendant. 

Now, what effect these circumstances have upon the direct question at 
issue, the relative proportion of deaths among the two sexes, as made 
manifest by the returns of Massachusetts, is left for each to determine for 
himself It may be proper to state, that although no entire registration 
district in England exhibits a larger proportion of female than male deaths, 
yet single counties, in rural districts, as Northamptonshire and Bedford- 
shire, among the South Midland Counties ; Suffolk, among the Eastern ; 
Wiltshire and Dorsetshire, among the Southwestern ; and North Fading, in 
Yorkshire, are among those whose female deaths are more numerous than 
males. The Austrian Provinces of lUyria Corinthia, and lUyria Carniolia, 
as well as the Prussian Province of Westphalia, likewise show an excess of 
female deaths. 

This excess of female mortality, wherever it exists, is exclusively 
confined to rural populations. The returns from all populous places, in the 
United States, shovf, that large towns are more inimical to male than female 
life, and that the proportion of deaths to the living of each sex among males 
is greater than among females. In this respect the New England States, 



116 



COMPARATIVE MORTALITY 



where au excess of female mortality alone is found, do not form an excep- 
tion to the general rule. 

Another enquiry of equal importance with the one just discussed, is the 
relative proportion of mortality between the two sexes at different periods 
of life, for the purpose of elucidating which the following table is intro- 
duced, giving the number of males and females who died at each age 
throughout the United States, as returned by the census of 1850 : 



Under 


1, - 


1 and 


under 6, 


5 " 


" 10, 


10 " 


" 20, 


20 " 


" 50, 


60 " 


" 80, 


80 " 


" 100, 


100 and 


over, 



Males. 


Females 


29,569 


24,696 


36,349 


32,364 


11,549 


10,172 


13,760 


14,485 


48,773 


41,734 


26,511 


20,840 


5,152 


5,020 


173 


190 



Totals, 



172,800 



150,045 



Although this table is freely admitted not to contain all the deaths 
which took place in the United States for one year, yet it is presumed to 
give a tolerably accurate account of those which come within the range of 
its observation. The omission is a general one, affecting some portions of 
the country more, and others less, as the marshals were more or less fortu- 
nate in procuring answers to their enquiries, or zealous in prosecuting them ; 
but in no instance have the whole number of deaths which took place in an 
entire State been included in their reports. The relative division of deaths 
into male and female, and their distribution among the respective ages, 
with the exception, perhaps, of those which took place in the earlier years, 
correspond so well with the observations made by the registers of the States 
where notice is taken of the deaths which occur among the rural population 



AT DIFFERENT AGES. 117 

and with those of other coimtries, as to lead to the belief, that they Avere 
returnecl, with tolerable accuracy, to the census bureau at Washington. 

This table shows, in the aggregate, a preponderance of male over 
female deaths, in each period of life included, except that from ten to 
twenty years of age, in which the excess shifts to the female side of the 
table, to return again to the male side at the next period of life, which 
unfortunately embraces a stretch of thirty years, from twenty to fifty, in 
the early part of which, if a division had been made, it would have been 
seen that the female deaths were more numerous than the male. 

Mr. Quetelet has given a table of the proportion of male and female 
deaths at different ages, for the town and country of Belgium, from which 
it appears that for every female death, there occurs the following propor- 
tions of male deaths, at the ages respectively named : — 

Age. 
1 to 2 years, .... 

14 to 18 " 
21 to 26 " 
26 to 30 " 
30 to 40 " 

40 to 50 !' . . . , 

50 to 60 " 
60 to YO " 
70 to 80 " 
SO to 100, .... 

From this it appears that at about two years the deaths in the two sexes 
are nearly equal; between the ages of 14 and 15, which is the period of 
puberty, the female deaths preponderate. Between those of 21 and 26 
the male deaths are in the ascendant, from 30 to 40 the excess of mortality 
shifts again to the female side, and continues with them during the period 
of procreation. 

* Quetelet, Siir L'Homme, vol. 1, p. 167. 



City. 


County. 


1.06 


0.97 


0.82 


0.75 


1.24 


1.11 


1.00 


0.86 


0.88 


0.63 


1.02 


0.83 


1.07 


1.18 


0.96 


1.05 


0.77 


1.00 


0.68 


0.92 



118 MALE AND FEMALE MORTALITY 

L'inflneuce des sexes est extremement prononcee dans tout ce qui con- 
cerne les dcces ; deja meme elle se fait ressentir avant que I'enfant ait pu voir 
lejour. Pendant les quatre annees de 1827 a 1830, on a compt6 dans 
Flandre occidentale 2597 morts-ues, dont 1517 de sexe masculin et 1080 du 
sexe feminin ; ce qui doune un rapport de 3 a 2 environ. Cette difference 
est considerable, et comme elle se reproduit dans les tableaux de chaque 
annee, elle doit etre attribuee a une cause speciale. 

Du reste, cette mortalite n'affecte pas seulement les enfants males avant 
leur naissance, mais encore a pen pres pendant les dix ou douze premiers 
mois qui la suivent, c'est-a-dire a pen pres pendant le temps de I'allaitement.* 

During the decennial period from 1828 to 1837, the number of deaths 
in the Kingdom of Sardinia was ..... 1,203,250 

of which . . . 603,185 were males 
and . . . 600,065 " females, 

being in the neighborhood of 195 males to 194 females, or in the propor- 
tion of 100, 52 of the former to 100 of the latter. 

" II sesso maschile par.dunque predominare nelle morti come nelle na- 
scite, ma in ragion di gran lunga minore ; onde la popolazione maschile 
dello Stato viene crescendo con progressione piu rapida che la popolazione 
femminile ; avremo anzi opportunita di vedere in altro luogo che, mentre 
ne' primi anni del decennio che consideriamo la popolazione femminile 
eccedeva la popolazione maschile negli Stati di S. M., il contrario avviene 
dal 1832 a questa parte; tuttavia si dee osservare, che le emigrazioni assai 
piu frequent! negli uomini che nelle donne, col diminuire il numero delle 
morti maschili avvenute in patria fan pur comparire minore del vero la ra- 
gione de' maschi a quella delle femmine nelle morti. 

" Questo fatto del predominio delle morti maschili non e ne eguale, ne 

* QuETELET, Sur L'Homme, vol. 1, p. 1C3. 



IN DIFFERENT COUNTRIES. 110 

costante in tutte le divisioni ; esso ha luogo con diversa proporzione nolle 
quattro Divisioni che seguono, nelle qnali si trovano : 

Moit. 
Divisioni. Masclii per 100 Femmine. 

Torino, 101 12 

Alessandria, 102 89 

Aosta, . 101 97 

Eizza, 100 85 

Nelle altro quattro divisioni succede il contrai'io, e si hanno : 

Morti. 
Divisioni. Maschi per 100 Femmine . 

Savoja, . . . 98 22 

Cuneo, 99 95 

Novara, . . " . . - . , • . . 99 98 

Genova, , . . .... . . . 99 95. 

" Queste differenze cosi leggieri, ed ora in nn senso, ora nell'altro, par 
che debbano attribuirsi a cagioni accidental!, anziche a niuna legge costante 
come quella che si osserva nelle nascite. Ne si pud dire che la mortalita di 
ciascun sesso segua la ragione della rispettiva popolazione ; poiche se cosi 6 
infatti per le Divisioni di Savoja, Torino, Cuneo ed Alessandria, il contra- 
rio succede in quelle di Novara e di Genova, nelle quali muojono piu nu- 
merosamente, ed in quelle di Aosta e di Nizza, nelle quali muorono piu 
uomini, abbenche in esse il numero delle donne sia il maggiore. In gene- 
rale la ragione de' due sessi nelle morti dipende dalla ragion loro nella po- 
polazione, della legge di mortalita per eta che a ciascuno compete, dal nu- 
mero delle emigrazioni e delle immigrazieni, e dall'eta cui queste sogliono 
aver luogo. 

"Havvi tra le citta e le campagne una sensibile diiferenza nella ragion 
de' sessi nelle morti, essendo maggiore nelle prime la mortalita degli uomi- 



120 



MALE AND FEMALE MORTALITY 



_ m, nelle ultime la mortalita delle cloniie. Fanno tuttavia eccezione le citta 
di Torino e di Geneva, nelle quali le morti femminili di gran lunga supera- 
no le maschili, tuttoclie in entrambe queste citta la popolazione maschile 
(comprendendo in essa la truppa di guarnigioue, e per Genova la popola- 
zione del porto) grandemente superi la popolazione femminile ; infatti in 
Torino la prima sta alia seconda come 128 al 100. Ecco le tavole su cui 
le precedenti osservazioni sono fondate : 

Moi-ti. 
Masclii per 100 Femmine. 
!N"e' Commimi Eurali, . . - . . . 99 74 

ISTelle citta in coniplesso, 104 87 

A Torino, . . 94 13 

A GenoYa, . . 95 66. '^ 

It thus appears, from the observations deduced by M. Quetelet, from 
the eastern portion of Flanders, that during the four years intervening 
between 1827 and 1830, the number of male still-born, as well as those who 
died in early life, was largely in advance of the female mortality. The 
female mortality, indeed, does not, according to the facts deduced by this 
distinguished authority, begin to approach that of the male until the age of 
fourteen, and is not in the ascendant prior to the age of from twenty-six to 
thirty. 

Although the observations made by the Royal Commission of Sardinia, 
just quoted, do not give the relative proportion of male and female deaths 
at particular ages, they yet furnish some valuable information in relation to 
the number of deaths in different places, from which it appears that while 
in some places, as in Turin and Alexandria, the female deaths were in the 
ascendant ; in others, as Genoa, and Savoy, they predominated on the side 
of the males. The proportion of male and female deaths, in town and 



* Inform, Statis. dalla R. Coram. Sup., Torino, 184S ; Movito. della Pope., p. 664. 



IN DIFFERENT COUNTRIES. 



121 



country, in Sardinia, appears to be particularly marked, being in the pro- 
portion of 99 males to 100 females, in rural districts, while it reaches 104 
males to 100 females, in town. In this respect these observations corres- 
pond with those made in different parts of the United States, as well as the 
more northern countries of Europe. 

The annexed table of deaths demonstrates that although the excess 
of mortality, in Massachusetts, is uniformly on the female side, yet during 
the early period of life, it is largely on that of the male : — 



Years. 


Sex. 


Total. 


Under 1. 


Under 5. 


20 to 30. 


AH others. 


1852, 


Males, 


8,978 


2,026 


3,719 


808 


4,451 


« 


Females, 


9,396 


1,641 


3,101 


1,385 


5,010 


<( 


Unknown, 


108 


83 


94 


.... 


14 




Totals, 


18,482 


3,750 


6,914 


2,093 


9,475 


1853, 


Males, 


9,942 


2,248 


4,192 


976 


4,774 


cc 


Females, 


10,210 


1,807 


3,595 


1,307 


5,308 


u 


Unknown, 


149 


120 


125 


• « e o 


24 




Totals, 


20,301 


4,175 


7,912 


2,283 


10,106 


1854, 


Males, 


10,710 


2,321 


4,337 


1,109 


5,264 


a 


Females, 


10,558 


1,786 


3,637 


1,493 


5,428 


<c 


Unknown, 


146 


81 


105 


.... 


41 




Totals, 


21,414 


4,188 


8,079 , 


2,602 


10,733 


1855, 


Males, 


10,285 


2,416 


4,267 


550 


5,462 


(( 


Females, 


10,386 


1,937 


3,694 


705 


5,987 


(( 


Unknown, 


127 


89 


106 


.... 


21 




Totals, 


20,798 


4,442 


8,067 


1,261 


11,470 


Aggregate, Males, 


39,915 


9,011 


16,515 


3,443 


19,951 


(( 


Females, 


40,550 


7,171 


14,027 


4,790 


21,733 


c( 


Unknown, 


530 


373 


430 


.... 


100 




Totals, 


80,995 


16,555 


31,072 


8,233 


41,78 



16 



122 MALE AND FEMALE MORTALITY 

The general experience of Life Assurance Companies, in Europe and 
in this country, is in exact correspondence with the results of the above 
table, and there seems to be no reason why the law of mortality in this 
regard should not correspond in the United States with that found to obtain 
in different European States. The experience of the Gotha Bank, in 
Germany, is pertinent to this subject :— 

" Another feature which appears to characterise the class of persons 
who insure their lives, and results from Mr. Hopf 's analysis of the Gotha 
statistics, is the much greater mortality of women at the earlier periods of 
life ; in mixed populations, the reverse holds good. Thus, in the quinquen- 
nial periods, 26 to 30, 31 to 35, 36 to 40, the mortality of men is 
respectively 0.77, 0.88, and 0.98 per cent, while that of women at the same 
periods of life is 1.66, 1.79, 1.92. After 40, the difference ceases, and 
at the most advanced periods the females acquire an advantage over 
males. The Gotha Bank do not insure pregnant women, nor have they ever 
succeeded in determining a case of fraud on the part of a female ; and 
yet, as the author observes, the numbers before us clearly prove that 
' females understood better than males to gain advantage in the assurance.' 
The following is his explanation of the fact : — • 

'1 think we must seek the principal cause of it in the circumstance that women, 
from the greater bashfulness peculiar to their sex, frequently do not communicate 
all their bodily infirmities and irregularities to their physicians, much less to others, 
and feel themselves much less under obligation to give notice to the assurance oflSce 
of what they consider their own secret respecting the condition of their body.' 

And again : — ■ 

' There is no doubt that a greater proportion of females who assure their lives 
at the younger years, die early. The deviation is too significant and too constant 
to be considered accidental. We are not able to explain it by any other supposition 



IN DIFFERENT COUNTRIES. 123 

than by the circumstance that women feel internal hidden infirmities and defects in 
a higher degree than men, and have a presentiment of approaching danger in conse- 
quence of them, which impels them to assure their lives, or that they understand 
better and more skilfully tlian men to hide the true state of their health, and to 
deceive by it even their medical men.' 

" It is, however, to be observed that the greater mortality of 
females below the age of forty does not apply in England, where the mor- 
tality of the two seses is equal at that period of life. Our own experience 
would tend to show that this great mortality among females before the 
climacteric, in Germany, is due rather to the greater fatality in childbirth, 
than to the hidden defects adverted to. We throw this out merely as an 
impression obtained by inspecting numerous returns of foreign agencies, 
than as a fact, since nothing but the comparison of extended statistics can 
serve to determine such a question. We should have no difficulty in 
accounting for the circumstance, if proved to be based in truth, fi-om the 
much more frequent employment of midwives during labor, in Germany, 
even among the higher classes, than among ourselves. 

" We pointed out at the commencement of our remarks on the subject 
of life insurance, that insurers, as a class, present a much more favorable 
average duration of life than their uninsured compatriots. This, however, 
would not be the case, were it not for the surveillance exercised by the 
police of the insurance companies — their medical officers. 

" Persons who feel the taint of any disease that may sap their vital 
power, are even more likely than others to insure their lives, in order to 
secure a provision for their wives and children. Were they admitted at the 
ordinary rates, the favorable averages spoken of as peculiar to the insured 
would soon be reduced below the average of the general population. It 
can only be by careful and conscientious appreciation of all the injurious 
influences to which mankind are subjected, and by a deliberate weighing of 



124 COMPARISON BETWEEN 

the circumstantial as well as the direct evidence bearing upon the health 
of an individual, that a medical examiner to an insurance company can 
completely fulfil the duties of his post. He has to guard against nervous 
anxiety in watching over the interests of his company, quite as much as 
against a laxity in examining the applicants for the benefits of the institu- 
tion. The shock to a person in average health on being declined on the 
ground of some imaginary predisposition, and the injury inflicted upon him 
by thus refusing him the benefits of assurance, not easily obtained elsewhere 
when once refused, are matters for the serious consideration of the medical 
officer of an insurance company.* 

The annexed table, pr-epared by Mr. Kennedy, late Superintendent of 
the Census Bureau, showing the per cent, of mortality in Massachusetts, 
Maryland, and England, among male and females, at each age, likewise 
illustrates this point : — Before introducing it, however, it may be proper to 
state, that as the officer upon whom the arrangement of the details of the 
census devolved, Mr. Kennedy bestowed much labor to perfect this new 
iDut important branch of statistical inquiry, and had the answers corres- 
ponded with the instructions in point of exactness, the information would 
have been everything that could be desired. Unfortunately, however, 
neither in the returns made by the marshals, nor in their collation after- 
wards, was the same care taken, as in the preparation of the forms adopted 
for their guidance. Nor is either he or Mr. De Bow to blame for the 
meagerness of the medical statistics which Congress felt so little interest in, 
as to order their publication after a tardy delay, on the sole condition of not 
exceeding 400 pages, instead of the elegant form originally contemplated 
by the officers in charge of the census office. 

* British and Foreign Medico-Cliirurgical Review, No. 35, p. 112. 



MASSACHUSETTS AND MARYLAND. 



125 



ANNUAL DEATHS PER CENT— 1850. 





Massachuseits. 


Makyland. 


England— 1641. 


Ages. 


stales. 


Females. 


Males. 


Females. 


Males. 


Females, 


to 5 


7.105 
1.168 
0.452 
0.572 
0.998 
1.253 
1.513 
2.067 
3.482 
6.767 
15.000 
35.240 


0.052 
0.983 
0.573 
0.831 
1.170 
1.346 
1.325 
1.654 
2.960 
6.762 
13.470 
27. 540 


5.466 
1.041 
0.477 
0.605 
0.896 
0.991 
1.884 
2.433 
3.405 
8.977 
15.157 
31.132 


4.875 
0.855 
0.606 
0.757 
0.938 
1.146 
1.249 
1.712 
3.285 
7.221 
12.280 
23.430 


0.838 
0.955 
0.609 
0.718 
0.949 
1.080 
1.410 
2.230 
4.232 
9.150 
19.850 
37.390 


5.860 
922 


5 to 10 


10 to 15 


542 


15 to 20 


801 


20 to 30 


942 


30 to 40 


1 121 


40 to 50 


1.308 
1 938 


50 to 60 


60 to 70 


3 761 


70 to 80 


8 378 


80 to 90 


18.850 


90 to 100 


34 570 







The mortality returns of many of the States would appear to indicate 
that a difference exists between the northern and southern States, in regard 
to the relative mortality of the sexes in the middle period of life, from 
thirty to forty, and that the relative proportion of female deaths to those of 
males, was greater at this particular period in warm than in cold climates. 
The facts are not sufl&ciently numerous or well defined, to give anything 
beyond a mere shadow to this suggestion ; but if, hereafter, under a more 
careful collection and analysis of facts it assumes a visible and substantial 
shape, it will furnish the starting point for many curious speculations which 
naturally suggest themselves to the mind upon its mere supposition. 

Dr. Sutton, in order to exhibit the force of mortality upon the sexes, 
at different ages, formed a table, showing the number of persons of different 
sexes living in Kentucky, in each period of life, as designated by the census 
for 1850, together with the number of deaths, and the proportion of deaths 
to those of living at the periods given, as taken from the State Registration 
Returns for 1853. 



126 



MALE AND FEMALE MORTALITY 





Number 


OF Living. 


NUMBEa 


OF Deaths. 


Deaths to 


Living 1 to 


A ■„„„ 




A 








, 


a.hES. 


Males. 


Females. 


Males. 


Females. 


Males. 


Females. 


Under 1 year, 


. 15,749 


15,014 


1,112 


845 


14.16 


18.00 


1 to 5, . 


71,938 


65,981 


974 


867 


73.85 


76.10 


5 to 10, . 


. 77,138 


74,781 


371 


341 


207.96 


219.30 


10 to 15, . 


77,713 


65,196 


224 


236 


346.93 


275.88. 


15 to 20, . 


. 64,881 


55,957 


250 


306 


219.12 


182.86 


20 to 30, . 


89,336 


82,782 


507 


620 


176.20 


133.52 


30 to 40, . 


. 56,162 


49,648 


240 


389 


234.00 


127.37 


40 to 50, . 


35,567 


33,011 


224 


263 


159.22 


125.52 . 


50 to 60, . 


. 21,197 


19,567 


188 


229 


112.75 


85.44 


60 to YO, . 


11,058 


11,173 


189 


164 


58.56 


68.13 


70 to 80, . 


. 4,793 


4,689 


165 


148 


29.05 


31.68 


80 and over, . 


1,766 


1,873 


116 


94 


15.22 


19.91 



This table is best explained by the constructor of it, who remarks : — 

" By examining this table closely, it will be observed that for the first 
six periods, the totals of deaths are greater than the sums of males and 
females. This is caused by there being one or more deaths at those ages 
in which the sex is not stated. In the census are a certain number of per- 
sons whose ages are unknown ; and the same is true of the persons who 
have died ; but no connection is presumed to exist between those thus re- 
turned in the census and in the assessor's book, for which reason they are 
both omitted in this table. 

" This table shows an awful mortality during the first years of life — no 
less than one in 15.64 (or 6 per cent, of all children born,) dying within 
the first year. If we reflect, too, that, of necessity, there must have been 
many deaths which were not returned by the assessors ; and again, that 
these infants were more likely to be forgotten than older persons, we 
shall be satisfied that this mortality, great as it appears, is yet far short 
of the truth. We must observe, too, that in every 100 dying during 
the first year, about 57 are males and 43 females. After the first year 



AT DIFFERENT AGES. 127 

t 

the ' value ' or ' expectation ' of life is mucli greater. Thus, more died 
during the first year than during the next four. Doubtless the chances in- 
crease as the time from birth increases ; so that during the second period of 
four years, only one in 74.70 died; and the male excess is greatly reduced. 
During the third period, from 5 to 10, the chances of life have trebled from 
what they were during the second — the male excess rather increased. The 
fourth period, from 10 to 15, shows the greatest expectation of life — only 
one dying in 310. Here the chances of life have shifted, and the excess 
of mortality is among the females. From this time, the expectation of life 
gradually declines ; until after the eightieth year, it is reduced to about 
what it was during the first year. The excess of mortality, too, continues 
with the females, until the tenth period, from 60 to 70, when it again re- 
turns to the males, and there continues to the end of the list. 

" Since constructing the foregoing table, and writing the comments on 
it, I have examined carefully a similar table prepared by the Registrar- 
General of England, and find that his table corroborates surprisingly both 
the general correctness of my table, in early life, and the remark made as 
to the number of infants whose deaths have been omitted. From that table, 
it appears that instead of one child dying under one year in every 16 born, 
or 6 per cent, in England, 20.51 per cent, males, and 15.44 per cent, females 
die within the first year ; thus demonstrating the enormous mortality of 
that period ; and by legitimate inference, the great number of deaths 
among infants which are not returned in our report. 

" In his table, as in mine, from births to the period " 10 to 15,' the 
excess of mortality remains with the males. In 10 to 15, and up to 30 to 
40,' there is a very slight excess of male deaths ; and through all succeed- 
ing periods, the excess remains with the males, and increases as age 
advances. Whether more extended observations will show an approxima- 



128 MORTALITY STATISTICS COMPARED. 

tion of the proportion of ages and sexes to the English tables, we must 
leave for time to determine. 

" I have looked into the relative mortality of the two races in early 
life, and find that of the 3,812 which are returned as having died under 5 
years, 2,674 were whites, being one in 284 of the white population, and 
1.138 were colored, being one for every 195 of the colored population." * 

The remarks which preceded Dr. Sutton's table, relative to the mor- 
tality of the two sexes, at the middle period of life, is not only corroborated 
by it, but extended beyond to a point which it is thought will not be 
sustained by more general observations. 

A comparison of the Swedish and Montpellier mortality tables will show 
that the difference in the relative mortality of the two sexes at this particu- 
lar epoch of life, which has just been alluded to, as a possible characteristic 
feature of northern and southern mortality in the United States, also exists 
in the northern and southern counties of Europe, so far as these tables are 
an indication of the value of life among their respective populations. 

The importance to be attached to these comparisons, between male 
and female life, cannot well be over-estimated, because it will be found that 
in proportion as the expectation of life increases in value, in like manner 
will the proportion of deaths between the sexes assimilate more closely to 
each other. Whatever cause tends to disturb these relations, as the hazards 
of early infancy, or the epidemics which prove fatal to later years, or the 
change of habit from a rural to city life, ojDerates directly in abridging the 
span of human existence. A population whose aggregate age at death is 
large, is uniformly a population in which the relative number of deaths 
among each sex, in proportion to the living of that sex, does not differ 
materially ; on the other hand, a population which presents a low aggregate 
age at death, is one which exhibits a great disparity in the deaths of the 
different sexes. 



* 2d Kentucky Registration Report, p. 126-7. 



INFLUENCE OF LOCALITY, L29 



CHAPTER XL 



LOCAL INFLUENCES, 



The influence of locality in determining the rate of mortality, is made 
quite manifest by a comparison of the various registers kept in different 
places, and indeed is perceptible to most persons without this comparison. 
The various natural divisions of country into sea-shore and inland regions, 
extended plains and mountain elevations, fruitful valleys and rugged preci- 
pices, have each a very manifest influence over the health of those who in- 
habit them. Nor are those geological formations which divide the surface 
into alluvial and sandy regions, and scatter immediately beneath the soil 
which reposes upon them limestone, granite, sandstone, and other rocks, 
giving a whole belt of country to the one formation, and another belt to 
another, less potent in the development of the diseases peculiar to each, 
and which constitute the chief outlets of life. 

But apart from these natural causes which are incident to each parti- 
cular locality, and which spring from the surface of the earth, is that more 
potent one of climate, which often modifies those causes that give character 
to each especial district, and assigns to each latitude its particular type of 
disease. 

Hence the inhabitants of so vast a country as that of the United States, 
which embraces almost every variety of natural division and geological for- 
16 



130 INFLUENCE OF LOCALITY 

mation, and, although possessed of a temperate climate, is yet subjected 
upon its southern and northern limits, in a modified degree, to the influences 
of a tropical and frigid one, are, as may well be supposed, subject to 
a great variety of influences, which operate in determining the rate of mor- 
tality, and fixing the relative value of life. 

It is evident that these are not always the same, nor are they amenable 
to the same laws ; and any standard of comparison which would assign a 
fixed rate of mortality to the whole United States must necessarily be de- 
fective and unreliable. ' 

It might reasonably be expected that in each great division of country 
the period of life upon which death made its heaviest demand, after the 
passage of the infantile one, would be different ; and indeed in infancy and 
the earliest years of childhood, the same result, in a more modified degree, 
might- be expected. Among the diseases of maturer years, and especially 
those which fall with most intensity upon middle life, many are confined to 
certain well defined geographical limits, beyond which they rarely extend, 
so as to form a characteristic feature in the mortality of those localities 
placed beyond their confines. 

Thus the intense autumnal fever, with its biliary complications and con- 
gestive type which prevails along the southern tier of States, and gradually 
loses its characteristics and intensity as it extends northward, is never seen 
in the New England States, or in those which skirt the Canadian border. 
Nor is the typhoid fever, which prevails in the northern States, especially 
in cool weather, a frequent visitor to the warm latitudes of Georgia and 
Alabama. 

Both of these are so modified by a change of climate, as to develope 
themselves in an altered form, in the latitudes which intervene between 
these two extremes. Exposure to cold, which in a northern latitude Avould 
develope itself in inflammatory affections, intense in degree, but pure and 



UPON THE BATE OF MORTALITY. 131 

simple in character, in a southern one, give rise to complications which 
seriously alter its character, and affect its mode of treatment and pro- 
bable result. An inflammation of the lungs or their investure, which in 
a northern latitude would constitute a simple pneumonia or pleurisy, as 
far south as Virginia, would become complicated with an affection of liver, 
giving rise to bilious pneumonia or pleurisy, which is a much more serious 
disease, and requires a different mode of treatment. 

These examples are sufficient to show the influence of climate and loca- 
lity in the development of diseases, and in the modification of the same 
disease, and naturally lead to the expectation that as the causes which 
operate in each are not always the same, and the circumstances under 
which disease is manifested are diverse, so the results as developed in the 
demand upon life, would be different. 

A striking evidence of the effect of locality and climate, in affecting 
the rate of mortality, is presented by the returns of the British army, whose 
duties, in guarding the immense possessions of that government, have made 
them the inhabitants of every variety of climate. The annexed table of the 
annual average mortality among the troops of this kingdom, is given upon 
the authority of Dr. Balfour, at the time Assistant-Surgeon to the Madras 
army : — 

AVEEAGE ANNUAL MORTALITY OF TE00P3 AT DIFFERENT STATIONS, NATIVES OF 

BEITISH ISLANDS. 

„. ,• . ,, .. Annual mortality 

Station. AuthoritT. , ,,,„-, , •' 

■' per 1,UOO troops. 

New South Wales, . . . Marshall, 14.1 

Cape of Good Hope, . . Reports, 15.5 

Nova Scotia, .... " 18.0 

Malta, " 18.7 

Canada, " 20.0 

Gibraltar, " 22.1 

Ionian Islands, .... " 28.3' 



•132 STATISTICS OF THE ENGLISH 

Station. Authority. ^"""^^ mortality 

•' per J ,000 troops. 

Mauritius, .... Eeports, 30.5 

Bermuda, .... '' 32.3 

St. Helena, .... " 35.0 

Tenasserium Provinces, . . " 60.0 

Madras Presidency, . . . Quetelet, 62.0 

Bombay, ..... " 55.0 

Ceylon, .... Eeports, 57.2 

Bengal, Quetelet, 63.0 

Windward and Leeward Command, Eeports, 85.0 

Jamaica, ..... " 143.0 

Bahmas, . . . . " 200.0 

Sierra Leone, .... " 483.0* 

It must be borne in mind that these troops were natives of the British 
islands, and consequently exhibited a much hig-her rate of mortality than 
the natives of the respective countries in which they were stationed.; 
yet with this reservation, the table demonstrates most emphatically the 
effect of climate upon general mortality. The difference in the rate of mor- 
tality between native and foreign troops is shown by the annexed table, 
exhibiting the mortality of troops serving in their native countries. Thus 
among — 

Mortality per 1,000. 

British regiments at home, .... 16.9 

Maltese at Malta, ..... 9.0 

Hottentot corps in Africa, 12.5 

^Native Bengal army, ..... 13.0 

Native Madras army, 15.0 

Native Ceylon army, ..... 25.8 



Annual average of native troops per 1,000, . 15.2 



* Journal London Statistical Society, vol. 8, p. 195. 



AND AMEEICAN ARMIES. 



133 



The annexed extract from the statistical report of the sickness and 
mortality of the United States Army, is introduced to develope the same 
proposition : — 



• 


Mean slrength. 


Number treated. 


Deaths. 


RATIO PEE 1,0J)0 OF MEAN 
STRENGTH. 


Regions. 


Treated. 


Died. 


Coast of New England 


3,963 
9,387 
6,901 
3,553 

10,346 
7,230 
6,299 
2,456 
1,454 
5,580 
5,319 
2,800 
6,919 

10,013 
835 
2,299 
4,450 
6,324 
5,873 
1,707 
1,599 
1,831 


6,935 

31,397 

31,635 

6,426 

22,784 

16,707 

14,262 

6,373 

3,670 

19,587 

20,804 

6,870 

17,426 

35,312 

2,408 

10,262 

35,693 

23 051 

11,738 

3,200 

5,420 

4,253 


36 

183 

28 

39 

140 

77 

117 

36 

59 

263 

107 

58 

234 

228 

21 

70 

235 

174 

139 

30 

70 

29 


1,749 
3,345 
4,584 
1,808 
2,202 
2,310 
2,264 
2,594 
2,524 
3,510 
3.911 
2,453 
2,944 
3,531 
2 883 
4,463 
3,526 
3,645 
1,999 
1,874 
3,389 
2,322 


9.0 


Harbor of New York, 

"West Point 


19.5 
4.0 


North Interior, East, 


10.9 


The Great Lalces, 


13.5 




10.6 


Middle Atlantic 


18.5 




14.6 


Newport Barracks, Kentucky, , 

Jefferson Barracks and St. Louis Arsenal,. 
Middle Interior, West, 


40.5 
47.0 
20.0 


South Atlantic, 


20.7 


South Interior, East, 


39.5 




22.7 


Atlantic Coast of Florida, 


26.0 


Gulf Coast of Florida, 


30.4 




52.8 




27.5 




23.6 




17.5 


California, Northern, 


43.7 




15.8* 







Neither of the results obtained by the returns given above, are to be 
taken as a standard by which to measure the relative value of life among 
the resident populations of the locality where the observations were made, 
because in addition to the circumstance that the life of a soldier is exposed 
to influences peculiar to itself, all of those noticed in the British army, and 
the portion of those in the United States who were stationed at southern 
posts, resided in climates to which they were strangers, and in which they 
were subject to influences not felt by the native residents. 

It has been seen that the relative annual mortality of the difl^erent 
countries, which possess a record of the deaths that have taken place 



Mortality Statistics United Stales Army, p. 494. 



134 ARMY STATISTICS NOT ALWAYS APPLICABLE 

among their respective populations, under the influence of the natural 
causes to which allusion has been made, and such artificial ones as they 
have chosen to surround themselves with, is quite different — the empire of 
Russia showing one death to each twenty-eight of its inhabitants, while in 
England the mortality declines to one in each forty -five. A subdivision of 
each country shows that mortality is greater in some rural districts than 
others, and in all presents a wide difference between town and rural life. 
Hence the law of mortality prevailing in Liverpool and the metropolis is 
not applicable to the rural districts either of the north or south midland 
counties, nor is that which defines the limits to human existence at each 
period of life, the same in France and Sweden. 

In the United States, with the error of the census returns corrected, so 
as to give an annual mortality of one to each forty-eight of the inhabitants, 
a result' is obtained which differs from each of the countries in Europe, in- 
asmuch as it presents a lower standard of mortality. This standard of mor- 
tality, which after all is based somewhat upon speculation, is not by any 
means reliable, and it will consequently be necessary to arrive at the law 
which governs it by an examination of its individual details. 

Parallelisms in different latitudes are not always to be expected ; but, 
inasmuch as they have been found to exist between different parts of 
the United States and Europe, corresponding in geographical position, 
in other portions of this enquiry, it is anticipated they will be found in this ; 
and although the results of the observations in no single country in Europe 
may be found to correspond with this, yet different parts of the entire con- 
tinent may be selected, irrespective of the government under which they 
exist, which will assimilate to corresponding parts of the United States. 
The advantage of these comparisons has already become so manifest, that 
nothing further need be said in their behalf at the present time. 

There is one circumstance connected with the climate of the United 



TO CIVIL LIFE. 135 

States, whicli would lead to the belief that the correspondence between 
different localities in Europe and this country, apparently similarly situated, 
might not always be sustained, or lead to analogous results. This is the 
greater heat of the American summei;. 

The prevailing winds in Europe, as well as America, especially dui'ing 
the summer season, are from the west. In that portion of the United States 
embraced within the limits of the valley of the Mississippi, as well as in 
that stretched along the Atlantic sea coast, the effect of these winds, whose 
course is for an immense distance over dry land, with no intervention of sea, 
is largely to elevate the temperature. In Europe, the wind fresh from the 
Atlantic Ocean produces a directly contrary effect, and modifies rather 
than elevates the temperature. This effect is strikingly manifested upon 
vegetation. There is no part of the United States where the heat of summer 
is not sufficiently intense to ripen maize, and it consequently flourishes in 
the northern as well as the Southern States. In Europe, with the exception 
of the low latitudes, it is found impossible to bring this plant to maturity for 
the want of a summer heat sufficiently intense to ripen it. It is, therefore, 
reasonable to expect that in elevated latitudes, as well as in southern ones, 
the mortality, in July and August, when the period of intense heat culmi- 
nates, will be proportionably greater than in countries similarly situated in 
other respects in Europe. 

" The isothermal lines, first employed by Humboldt to measure the heat 
and cold of the earth, and to connect places having the same mean temper- 
ature, differ sensibly from the lines of latitude. We need not now enter 
into details how the earth's annual rotation and oblique motion, in relation 
to the sun, the centre of the system, fixes the tropical limits of the sun's 
apparent declination south and north of the equator, and produces alternate 
winter and summer on either side of the line, as it will be evident that the 
mean annual temperature obtained at different' latitudes must decrease from 



136 ISOTHEEMAL OBSERVATIONS. 

the equator to fhe poles. Had the whole surface of the earth been uniform, 
presenting the like relations to radiant heat, unaffected by the unequal 
action of disturbing causes, the mean temperature of every point would 
have been in proportion to the radius of the parallel latitude. But the 
mean temperature of places, calculated according to Dr. Brewster's formula, 
from an equatorial mean of 81° 50' Fahr., differs considerably from the mean 
obtained by observation. The mean temperature is usually higher at the 
same latitude in the Old World than in the New, and in north latitude than 
in south. Thus the isothermal line of 59° Fahr. traverses the latitude of 
46° in Europe, but descends to latitude 36° in America. The general causes 
which disturb the symmetrical distribution of temperature, are the annual 
variations of the upper equatorial and lower polar currents of the atmos- 
phere, the d.ifferences of its contained humidity, the unequal distribution of 
land and water in various countries, the peculiarity of the surface land, and 
its relative height above the level of the sea — all of which causes have 
more or less influence in determining the local temperature or climate of 
countries, and in fixing the isothermal lines that mark out the zones of 
disease."* 



* British and Fnreign Medico-Chiruvgical Revie\e, No. XXXVIII., p. 243. 



GENERAL CONFIGURATION OF TERRITORY. 



137 



CHAPTER XII. 

NATURAL DIVISIONS OF THE UNITED STATES. 

It has already been stated (page 18) that the territory of the United 
States is physically divided into three distinct sections, separated from each 
Other by lofty ranges of mountains, and containing peculiarities rendermg 
an examination of each a matter of the highest consideration. The first of 
these great divisions is occupied by the Atlantic plain and slope, which ex- 
tends from the Atlantic to the crest of the Alleghany mountains, and is the 
oldest as well as the most populous section of the country. The second is 
embraced in the wide valley, bounded on the one side by the Alleghany, or 
Appalachain chain, and on the other by the Rocky Mountains, and is tra- 
versed by the Mississippi River and its tributaries. The third extends from 
the Rocky Mountains to the shores of the Pacific, and, with the exception 
of California, contains but a slender population, and is traversed by vast 
wastes of unexplored territory. 

The Atlantic plain and slope, stretching from the river St. Croix upon 
the north, to the coral reefs of Florida upon the south, presents south of 
Cape Cod an unbroken front, upwards of one thousand miles in extent, to 
the waves of the Atlantic, unrelieved by any of those bold prominences 
which destroy the tameness of landscape. After passing Cape Cod, whose 
17 



138 THE ATLANTIC PLAIN, 

shores are low and sandy, northward, the highlands near the ocean, and the 
numerous harbors of Massachusetts, New Hampshke and Maine, open upon 
the sea in the midst of bold and picturesque hills, which contrast agreeably 
with the tame and monotonous scene of the more southerly coast. 

Receding from the shore, this vast plain, at first level, becomes elevated 
into hills, which increase in boldness and diversity, until they finally rise 
into those lofty ranges of mountain peaks, which bound the Atlantic slope 
on its western side. 

The breadth of this plain is not in all places the same. Beginning in 
New England by a narrow line, confined almost entirely to the sea-coast 
and the subjacent islands, it gradually expands as it proceeds southward, 
until in the Carolinas the mountains recede two hundred miles from the sea^ 

A well defined line of primary rocks, extending longitudinally through 
the whole length of this plain, from the New England States to North Caro- 
lina, marks the point of demarcation between the low and level plain 
skirting the sea shore, and the elevated land which finally loses itself in the 
lofty summits of the AUeghanies. This line of primary rock, which main- 
tains an average elevation of great uniformity of between 200 and 300 feet 
above the sea, presents a visible barrier to the flow of the tide, and is 
marked in almost every stream that crosses it, on its way to the ocean, by a 
series of waterfalls or turbulent rapids. 

The appearance of this chain of rocks clearly indicates that it once 
formed the shore of the ocean, and presented to the resistless beating of its 
waves, a long but not very elevated range of cliffs. The aspect of the 
plain, stretching towards the sea, is also strongly corroborative of this 
view. It is low, flat, sandy, and covered by an abundant series of alluvial 
deposits, and is furrowed out to the level of the tide in every part by a 
multitude of inlets which are not unfrequently associated with large patches 
of marsh, or salt-meadow land. 



AND SLOPE. 139 

The upper part of the valley, divided by this line of rocks, is nearly of 
the same dimensions as that skirting upon the sea, and presents at the onset 
a range" of gentle undulations which swell into bolder and bolder forms, 
until it sweeps over the blue ridge and rises into mountain peaks. It is 
priijeipally composed of the older sedimentary and stratified primary rocks, 
and presents a fine hilly country, luxuriant in vegetation, rich in scenery, 
and possessed of a number of rivers, and a water-power of great value. 
Professor H. D. Rogers has called the alluvial range east of the line of 
primary rocks the Atlantic plain, and that west of it the Atlantic slope. 

Most of the principal towns on the Atlantic are built along this line of 
demarcation, clearly showing the powerful influence exerted by geological 
phenomena upon the distribution of population. This line of primary rock 
may be traced from the city of New York, in the falls of the Passaic at 
Paterson, the Rariton at New Brunswick, the Delaware at Trenton, the 
Schuylkill at Philadelphia, the Patapsco near Baltimore, the Potomac at 
Georgetown, the Rappahannock near Fredericksburg, the James River at 
Richmond, the Brandywine near Wilmington, the Congree at Columbia, 
and the Savannah at Augusta. 

The whole surface of the extensive territory limited by the Alleghany 
mountains, as well indeed as the greater part of the entire continent north 
of the Isthmus of Darein, is overlaid with a strata of earth and pebbles of 
evident diluvial origin, varying in thickness from ten to twenty feet, fre- 
quently leaving large surfaces of the rocky formation exposed, and as often 
burying them in an investure of thirty feet in depth. 

West of this mountain chain, which not only presents a variety and 
beauty of landscape as grand and attractive as the loftiest peaks of the 
Alps or the Pyrennees, and is rich beyond calculation in its treasures of coal, 
iron ore, and other minerals, the interior valley of the Mississippi spreads 
by a wide and continuous sweep to the Rocky Mountains on the west. 



140 THE INTERIOR VALLEY "^ " 

These mountains, which are a continuation of the Andes of South 
America, and the Cordilleras of Mexico, obtain an elevation of fourteen 
thousand feet, rising into occasional peaks of upwards of sixteen thousand 
feet. 

This valley is traversed from north to south upwards of three thousand 
miles by the Mississijspi river. This parent stream receives the waters 
from numerous tributaries coursing through every portion of the valley, 
and forming highways upon which an immense commerce is carried. Cities 
of considerable size have arisen upon the banks of these rivers in various 
parts of the valley to accommodate the traffic, and the bottom lands in their 
vicinity have become covered by a comparatively dense rural population. 

A very remarkable phenomena in the arrangement of this valley is the 
uniformity of its slopes. One of these reaches from the Alleghany Mountains 
to the Mississippi river, a second and larger extends from the Rocky Moun- 
tains to the same point, and a third gradually rises from the Gulf of Mexico 
to the head waters of the Mississippi, with so gradual an ascent as not to 
attain an elevation of more than 1,000 feet in the whole distance. The 
slope west of the Mississippi is regular, while that on the eastern side is 
occasionally broken into hills, and embraces the most fertile territory in the 
United States. 

This immense valley contains vast spaces covered by marshes, and 
small lagoons, and others of equal extent, especially near the Rocky Moun- 
tains, whose sandy and arid soil affords but a stinted and scanty vegetation. 
Beneath this variety of surface reposes the formations of every geological 
era, from the alluvion of the Gulf of Mexico to the primitive rocks of the 
more northern section. 

In all these varied formations the greatest order and simplicity are 
observed, and it is probably here, above all other sections of the globe, that 
the geologist can best read in its vast pages the history of the earth's 



OF THE MISSISSIPPI. 141 

geological formation. The primitive and metamorphic rocks, it is true, are 
seldom seen, and are only exposed by upheaval from their natural positions, 
but the lower silurian, the upper silurian, the Devonian and the carboniferous 
strata, present themselves in unvaried regularity over wide districts of 
country. 

The extensive ranges of silurian rocks are, for the most part, composed 
of limestone, in every variety, from hard and dense, to soft and friable. 

That these geological characteristics exercise a considerable influence 
over health, is well known. Their connexion is too immediate and self-evident 
to the medical man to require examination in detail. The prevailing type 
of disease is dependant as much, and perhaps more, on the predominant 
rock of the country, than upon any other cause. Climate, temperature, 
hygrometic condition of the atmosphere, and prevailing winds, may have 
much to do in influencing the general peculiarities of maladies in particular 
localities ; but all these agents combined are incompetent to generate the 
cause which frequently dwells in the rocky formation. Where the sub- 
stratum is composed of clay-slate the country is level, and the soil is in an 
especial degree retentive of moisture, and consequently ponds and marshes 
abound, and intermittent fever prevails. A limestone formation, especially 
of a friable species, is characterized by a luxuriant vegetation, a picturesque 
landscape, and a high grade of autumnal fever. In the region of sandstones 
the surface is hilly, and frequently mountainous, arid, and less productive, 
the streams are pure and rapid, and stagnant water is unknown. This is 
the region characterized above all others for eminent salubrity. 

It will be seen that there is no section which does not possess local 
causes of salubrity and disease, entirely independent of the great geogra- 
phical divisions into which the country, as a whole, naturally resolves itself 
When a sufficiently minute series of statistics are obtained, the effect of these 
local causes will furnish the medical etiologist with interesting subjects of 



142 



RANGE OF TEMPERATURE 



investigation. The Transactions of the American Medical Association 
contain some papers on local epidemics, which are valuable in this 
connection. 

In forming an estimate of climate in temperate latitudes, such concomi- 
tant circumstances as proximity to the sea, or large inland bodies of water 
exposure to winds and elevation, must not be overlooked. Thus, in high 
latitudes, the sea-coast is always warmer than the interior in winter, and 
cooler in summer. The mountainous regions of New Hampshire and Ver- 
mont, although but a comparatively trifling distance from the coast, are so 
much colder during the winter season, that it is the constant practice of 
valetudinarians to leave those elevated situations during this inclement 
season to pass the winter in Boston, or other portions of the sea coast. 

The following table, prepared under the direction of the Surgeon- 
General of the United States Army, is illustrative of this point : — 



Places 


s 

1 


11 


Si 




Winter. 


SpniNG. 


Summer. 


AUTOMN. 


Obsev'n. 




Dee. 


Jan. 


Feb. 


March. 


AprU. 


May. 


June. July. 


Aug. 


Sept. 


Oct. 


Nov. 




41° 22' 
41° 22' 


51.56 
53.10 




34.95 23.31 


31.87 


40.68 


54.66 


61.94 


1 
69.27 72.98 


75.57 


66.48 


54.45 


37.90 




42.24 27.15 


34.73 


42.35 


53.15 


59.00 


1 
67.25 73.16 


71.39 


66.75 


58.16 


41.85 


W.Pt. 

Ft. T'll 


101.10 
88 


111 

88 


■ 30.04 
34.71 


62.39 
61.50 


71.60 
70.60 


62.61 
55.59 



West Point, New York, is on the same parallel of latitude, and distant 
one and a half degree of longitude from Fort Trumbull (New London, Ct.) 
The former is inland, whilst the latter is upon the sea coast. Here, proxi- 
mity to the sea, renders the winters 4.67° milder, and the summers 1° cooler, 
than at West Point. 



ON SEA-COAST AND INLAND. 143 

This difference is still more manifest in that portion of the North 
American continent lying above the boundary of the United States. In 
Nova Scotia, which is nearly surrounded by water, the thermometer seldom 
indicates a temperature greater than 88° in summer, nor less than 8° below 
zero in winter ; whilst in Canada, occupying the same parallels of latitude, 
the thermometer in summer rises as high as 97" and occasionally 100°, and 
the oppression is as great as in equatorial latitudes. In winter, a cold of 
30° below zero, is frequent, and the thermometer indicates a range during 
this season of from 8° to 30° below zero. 

The report of the Surgeon-General contains the results of a variety of 
observations made at different places for the purpose of marking the effect 
on temperature by proximity to, or distance from the sea, from which 
it would appear that the winters are 8.38° colder, and the summers 
6.99° warmer, in the inland than on the sea coast. 

It may be proper to remark that many of the inland military posts, are 
situated in the new country beyond the western border settlements, and are 
exposed to the bleak winds from the Rocky Mountains, which course with- 
out opposition across the open belts of prairie, forming so prominent a 
picture in this western landscape. Those who reside in these prairies 
believe, and perhaps justly, that the sun's rays obtain a greater intensity in 
their open and almost boundless fields, than where the scene is diversified 
by the green foliage and agreeable shelter of the thick forest. It is highly 
probable, therefore, that a comparison between localities less exposed, and 
in more cultivated regions, would not exhibit the same difference of tem- 
perature between the sea-coast and interior, as appears from the observations 
of the medical officers of the army. 

The small numerous islands which dot the surface of the ocean on the 
shores of South Carolina and Florida, are famed for their salubrity and uni- 
formity of temperature ; while the interior in summer is parched beneath 



144 CLIMATE OF THE GREAT LAKES. 

tte intensity of a burning sun. Tlie temperature here seldom attains a 
higher elevation than 80° or 83°, which, combined with the pleasant sea- 
breeze, almost continually playing over their surface, renders them delightful 
and healthy places of resort for the inhabitants of the main land. 

The immense chain of inland lakes on the northern frontier, comprising 
a larger collection of fresh water than is to be found elsewhere on the sur- 
face of the globe, exercises, as may be supposed, a decided influence on the 
temperature of the country in juxta-position with them. It is estimated 
that these lakes contain 11,300 cubic miles of water, about half the quantity 
of fresh water on the globe, and reach for a distance of 1900 miles, covering 
over 94,000 square miles with water. Their depth is proportionably great — 
in some places, as in Lake Michigan, the sounding line having gone to the 
depth of 1800 feet without reaching bottom. 

The effect on climate produced by proximity to rang es of mountains 
in the United States is very marked. The salubrity of those portions of Yir- 
ginia, Maryland and Pennsylvania, lying at the foot of the AUeghanies, is 
doubtless in a great measure induced by the immediate presence of this ex- 
tended chain of lofty mountains. The superior healthiness of this section 
of country is so famed, that large numbers of visitors from the lowlands 
and large cities, are in the yearly custom of resorting thither during the 
summer and autumn months, when the heat of town is most oppressive, and 
the malarial country most prolific of disease. 

It not unfrequently happens, however, that the protection afforded by 
mountains against the strong winds, operates unfavorably on the mainte- 
nance of a wholesome atmosphere, and hence we often find, deep valleys in 
the midst of high and precipitous mountains without a proper outlet, op- 
pressed by a degree of heat which is almost insupportabable. In those 
mountain gorges, on which the wind falls obliquely, and without sufficient 
force to sweep away the vapours arising from the surface, which constantly 



AND MOUNTAIN REGIONS. 145 

arise, laden with exhalations from the soil, an unwholesome moisture is ever 
present, the air stagnates and looses its vital properties ; even the water is 
supposed to loose its healthy qualities, and the situation becomes in the 
highest degree prejudicial to health. Positions of this kind are seldom in- 
habited in the United States, owing to the extent of its territory, and the 
facility with which even the poorest persons can change their abode. In 
Switzerland and Scotland the melancholy effects of such a locality are ren- 
dered too visible in the miserable race of beings inhabiting them, who are 
the constant and incurable victims of scrofulous and rachitic affections, and 
who drag out a bare animal existence of mental imbecility and bodily suf- 
fering, oppressed by evils which they have neither the ability nor the inclin- 
ation to cast off. 

Elevation above the level of the sea exercises a decided influence over 
the climate of any particular latitude. The temperature of the atmosphere 
is found to decrease in successive and regular gradation as it leaves the 
earth's surface, so that in the ascent of the lofty mountains, within the 
tropics, the traveller expeiiences every change of weather, from the oppres- 
sive heat of the summer's sun on the plain below, to the piercing cold of 
eternal frost, on the lofty summit above. The variation of temperature has 
been found, with occasional variations, to equal one degree for every three 
hundi'ed feet in temperate climates. This subsidence of temperature with 
elevation is doubtless dependent on the extreme rarity of the atmosphere at 
a distance from the earth, and the consequent facility with which it is per- 
meated by heat, as well as the radiating powers possessed by the earth, which 
enables it to return the atmosphere a portion of the solar rays previously 
absorbed. 

The atmosphere is condensed in proportion to the force by which it is 

compressed, and expands in exact ratio to the diminution of that force. It 

follows that the superincumbent strata of air, being compressed with 
18 



146 EFFECT OF ELEVATION. 

greatest force in its most dependent part, and that dependent part being 
nearest the earth's surface, its density will there be greatest, and this density 
will diminish in exact proportion to the ascent of the column of air. Now, 
the air, when under a certain compression, has a certain capacity for latent 
heat, which is increased by a diminution of the compression, and diminished 
by its increase. If a column of aijD, at a certain distance from the earth, 
receive a certain number of sun's rays, and then be suddenly brought down 
to a position where it will occupy a denser medium, its particles being com- 
pressed, a portion of the latent heat becomes sensible, and is given off to 
surrounding bodies. 

The following obsei'vations, made by Mr. Green, in an serial voyage, ex- 
hibits this declension of temperature : — 

" The thermometer at the earth's surface indicated a temperature of 74° 

At an elevation of 2,952 feet, of 72 

7,288 " 70 

9,993 " 69 

" 11,059 '• 45 

" 11,293 " 38 " 

making a difference of 36 degrees between the earth's surface and the 
highest elevation attained, or about one degree for every 311 feet of alti- 
tude. However, much more confidence is to be placed in the statements of 
Humboldt and Sir John Leslie, who believe the difference to be more marked 
nearer the surface of the earth. 

The human body is supposed to be affected by the rarefaction of the 
air at great heights, as well as by a diminution of the temperature. On 
this point, however, there exists a diversity of opinion, some maintaining 
that all the unpleasant effects experienced in these ascents are to be attri- 
buted to the fatigue consequent on so difficult a journey; whilst others 
affirm that these effects ai'e due alone to the character of the atmos- 



SOURCES OF MOISTURE. 147 

phere. Under ordinary circumstances the equality of pressure from the air 
is so equally balanced without and within, that although a pressure is main- 
tained equal to about 32,000 pounds, it is not felt. If any considerable 
portion of this pressure be removed, the bloodvessels, especially of the 
mucous surfaces, are more easily ruptured, and hence hemorrhages from the 
lungs and other parts of the body are more apt to occur. Strangers visitigg 
Potosi, in South America, which is the most elevated town of any size in 
the world, being upwards of 13,000 feet above the level of the ocean, do not 
recover from the unpleasant effects produced by a rarefaction of the air at 
this height under a year, and pulmonary complaints are much more frequent 
among them than the inhabitants of the low country. 

Taken as a Avhole, all the gentle slopes on this continent descend east- 
wardly towards the Atlantic, and the abrilpt ones rise on its western aspect. 
Ill this respect a manifest difference is observed between this continent and 
Europe, which gradually declines westwardly towards the Atlantic. 

This general configuration necessarily gives rise to a moister and more 
temperate climate in Europe than in America, in the same parallels of 
latitude. This effect would be much more obvious were it not for an admir- 
able compensation made by the presence of the gulf stream and the trade 
wind that accompanies it. Erom this source, not only the Atlantic coast, 
but the Mississippi valley, which is exposed at its southern extremity to the 
Gulf of Mexico, derives a larger proportion of its moisture, and is equalized 
with that of Europe. The trade wind, fresh from the gulf stream, spreads 
itself along the whole Atlantic region and upon the slopes of the AUeghanies 
loaded with vapor obtained from the ocean, and not only supplies this part 
of the continent with a copious supply of water, but even distributes its 
favors, in a less degree however, to the Mississippi region, through its great 
inlet on the Gulf of Mexico. Were this great interior valley exposed to the 
southwest winds from the Pacific, instead of being shut out from them by 



148 EFFECT OP MOISTURE 

the Rocky Mountains, its climate would doubtless be softer and more 
equable, and its influence over health and disease largely modified. 

There is, perhaps, no concomitant of the atmosphere more immediately 
concerned in the maintenance of the functions of the body, more influential 
in the preservation of health, and more active in the production of disease, 
than moisture. Man constantly exists not only in an atmosphere of air, 
but likewise in one of aqueous vapor, which insinuates itself between the 
particles of common air, and pervades to a greater or less extent the entire 
etherial ocean, seriously modifying it, and influencing its action on the 
animate creation. 

The human body is composed, in a great proportion, of fluid particles, 
which are incessantly in a state of motion — sometimes slow, and at other 
times rapid — that flnd a ready egress by means of the exhalent vessels, both 
from the external and internal open surfaces. In a dry state of the atmos- 
phere, especially when combined with an elevated temperature, the exha- 
lents are exceedingly active, and give off a greater amount of fluids than are 
required to be parted with for the due performance of the functions of the 
body. For this reason the desire for liquid aliment is manifestly increased 
in summer. Every one must have observed the difference in the amount of 
liquid taken in a dry or a damp day, at the same season of the year ; 
indeed, this appetite, when not unnaturally created, and when the body is 
in a state of perfect health, is almost entirely dependent on the hyrometic 
condition of the atmosphere for the variation in its demands. 

In Arabia and the interior of Africa, where the air contains compara- 
tively little moisture, the inhabitants exhibit a dry and rigid muscular fibre, 
and possess an exceedingly small supply of fluids. In the British Islands, 
and the coast of New England, in our own country, where the quantity of 
moisture contained in the atmosphere is unusually great, the inhabitants 
exhibit a greater proportion of fluids in their organization than any other 



UPON THE HUMAN BODY. 149 

people on the surface of the globe. In Mexico, the table lands are cele- 
brated for the dryness of thek atmosphere. The rapacity with which it 
seizes on fluid particles is said to be so great, that the flesh of animals 
seldom becomes putrid, even during the heat of summer. The fluid por- 
tions combining with the atmosphere, the solid are preserved by means of 
this process of natural drying. The Indians upon the southwestern frontier 
resort to this method of securing their food by jerking the flesh of the 
buffalo. 

The influence of moisture, as experienced by its presence or absence in 
winds, is very well known. Those winds which pass over a large extent of 
water are moist, light and warm, and exert a beneficial influence over the 
system, whilst those which find their way over a considerable tract of land 
are drier and heavier. In warm countries, the winds from land, freighted 
with the additional heat derived from the burning soil, and deprived of 
the greater proportion of their moisture, are dry, hot, suffocating, and are 
frequently productive of the most dreadful effects to those travellers, 
who, on the deserts of Africa, or the plains of India, are exposed to their 
action. 

This aqueous vapor, so necessary for the due performance of the animal 
functions, has its force determined, and its quantity established in the 
atmosphere, by locality, temperature, pressure, and motion of the air. In its 
serial form, vapor, like all the other constituents of the mixed atmosphere 
in which we live, is colorless and transparent ; but in the act of condensing, 
it imparts to the atmosphere a certain degree of opacity, proportioned to 
the conglomeration of the watery particles. The visible vapor^ arising fi'om 
the condensation of the transparent portions of the watery atmosphere, 
becomes manifest to our senses, in the form of clouds, mist and fog ; and 
when the collection is too large to be sustained by the buoyancy of the air, 
it descends upon the earth, in rain, hail, or snow. 



150 EFFECT OF MOISTURE. 

The vapor in the atmosphere is derived from the evaporation of water 
at the earth's surface. This process takes place with greater rapidity at a 
high than at a low temperature, in a dry than in a moist atmosphere, in an 
agitated rather than in a quiet air, and hence a warm climate and dry winds 
are highly favorable to its production. 

These general observations will enable the reader to understand why 
certain localities in the same latitude are different from others. With these 
characteristics of territory before him, he will readily comprehend why 
the same degree of latitude presents a great variety of forms of disease, 
some of which are referable to one condition of climate and others to 
another, and will be prepared to explain many apparently contradictory 
phenomena which present themselves in the investigation of the causes 
of mortality in so extensive and diversified a country as that embraced 
within the limits of the United States. 



INFLUENCE OF SEASONS. 151 



CHAPTER XIII. 



INFLUENCE OF SEASONS. 



Th e following table exhibits the number of deaths which occurred in 
each of the four seasons of the year, in each State of the Union : — 



States. 


Spring. 


Summer. 


Autumn. 


Winter. 


Alabama, 


2,084 


2,229 


2,852 


1,686 


Arkansas, 


756 


718 


933 


548 


California, 


5i 


92 


417 


322 


Columbia, District of, 


236 


263 


189 


146 


Connecticut, 


1,399 


1,162 


2,127 


1,026 


Delaware, 


273 


380 


345 


209 


Florida, 


226 


252 


247 


174 


Georgia, 


2,559 


2,535 


2,692 


2,051 


Illinois, 


2,492 


3,333 


3,649 


1,742 


Indiana, 


2,765 


3,540 


4,160 


2,039 


Iowa, 


523 


526 


605 


356 


Kentucky, 


3,436 


4,949 


4,060 


2,424 


Louisiana, 


2,784 


3,505 


3,053 


2,514 


Maine, 


1,882 


1,774 


2,569 


1,334 


Maryland, 


1,385 


2,730 


2,561 


1,777 


Massachusetts, . 


3,945 


3,964 


7,645 


3,583 


Michigan, 


1,117 


1,047 


1,325 


832 


Mississipi^i, 


2,089 


2,371 


2,645 


1,460 



152 DEATHS IN EACH SEASON. 



States 


Spring. 


Summer. 


Autumn. 


Winter. 


Missouri, 


2,160 


5,422 


2,842 


1,507 


Hew Hampshire, 


1,013 


990 


1,459 


751 


New Jersey, 


1,463 


1,750 


2,175 


J, 037 


New York, 


10,101 


12,444 


14,843 


7,602 


Worth Carolina, 


2,707 


2,678 


2,425 


2,697 


Ohio, 


6,122 


9,520 


9,010 


4,159 


Pennsylvania, 


7,649 


7,517 


8,129 


4,042 


Ehode Island, . 


473 


520 


817 


520 


South Carolina, 


1,997 


2,058 


2,259 


1,465 


Tennessee, 


2,924 


3,818 


3,039 


2,244 


Texas, . 


585 


706 


804 


691 


Vermont, . 


890 


672 


941 


590 


Virginia, 


5,144 


5,489 


4,576 


3,608 


Wisconsin, 


768 


630 


963 


509 


Minnesota, . 


6 


10 


7 


• • 


New Mexico, . 


288 


235 


214 


292 


Oregon, 


13 


5 


9 


14 


Utah, 


56 


97 


30 


52 



From these returns it will be seen that the summer and autumn 
months proved more fatal than those of winter and spring. In most of the 
Northern States, as Maine, New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Connecticut and 
New York, the most fatal season was autumn ; while in many of the Southern 
States, as Virginia, Kentucky, North Carolina and Louisiana, the period of 
greatest mortality was summer. This does not appear to be invariably the 
case, as in Alabama, Georgia, Mississippi and South Carolina, the number 
of deaths in summer and autumn nearly correspond, but slightly prepon- 
derate on the side of autumn. 

The influence of Asiatic cholera, which prevailed as an epidemic 
during the summer of 1849, may have had some effect in changing the 
relation of the deaths to the four seasons in which they are classed, as it 
certainly had in the case of Missouri, where 5422 deaths are recorded in 



IN DIFFERENT STATES. 153 

the summer qnavter, and but 2842 in the autumn ; but it is presumed 
generally to have had but slight effect, as the persons who were victims 
were usually of the humblest class in towns, and had but fcAV friends to 
report their deaths to the authorities, by whom these returns were made ; 
besides, the whole number of deaths reported as having died of cholera, in 
the United States, is 31,506, while it is known that 5,071 died from this 
disease, in the city of New York alone, and as many more in St. Louis, The 
great mortality which pervaded the whole valley of the Mississippi, from 
this disease, is, of coui'se, not to be found in these returns.* 

With scarcely an exception, the season of winter is to be found least 
prolific of disease. This diminished mortality does not apjsear to be confined 
to any particular section of country, but embraces with equal force the 
States located in the colder latitudes of the north, and the milder ones of 
the south, and contrasts in the most striking manner with the results of the 
registration returns of England. 

From an examination of these, it will be seen that the heaviest demand 
upon life, in England, is in the winter season, when, according to the census 
returns, it is least severely taxed here, and that the periods of freest exemp- 
tions from disease there are those upon which it falls with greatest severity 
here. Now, while this table exhibits in the most positive manner the in- 
fluence of the seasons upon disease, it at the same time shows clearly how 
very materially the law of mortality in England and the United States is at 
variance, and demonstrates the necessity of great caution in the use of the 
former when applied to an elucidation of the value of life in the United 
States. 

This great winter mortality in England " exhibits," remarks the Re- 



* Report on Asiatic Cholera in the United States, iu 1S49, by James Wynne, M. D. Appendix C to the 
Report of the General Board of Health, London. 

19 



154 DWELLINGS IN DIFFERENT SECTIONS 

gistrar-Geueral, "in a striking light the fatal effects of cold." The degree 
of cold iu the northern part of the United States is not only equal to that 
of England during the winter months, but far more intense, and if the mor- 
tality was due' to cold alone, it should be fai' outstripped by that of this 
country, while in fact, with a lower depression of the thermometer than in 
England, this particular season is more healthy here than there. But the 
Registrar-General alludes to another cause which may operate with 
greater force in England than in this country, and certainly does so in the 
rural districts. This is "the crowding and privations to which a consider- 
able part of the population is necessarily more exposed in cold than in warm 
weather." 

A manifest difference in the habits of the inhabitants of the two coun- 
tries is their relative division into town and country populations. Eight 
hundred and fifteen towns in Great Britain, in 1851, contained an aggregate 
population of 10,556,228 persons, nearly equal to one-half of the whole 
population, from which it would appear that the whole was nearly equally 
divided between those who resided in towns and those who dwelt in the 
country, giving a slight preponderance to the latter. 

The aggregate town population of the United States in 1850, who 
dwelt in towns of not under 4,000 inhabitants, was about 3,000,000. Mr. 
De Bow estimates " that the village, town and city population includes 
about one-fourth of the whole," leaving as residents of rural districts three- 
fourths of the population, instead of one-half, as in England and Wales. 

The statistics of neither country show any excessive crowding of the 
population into a small number of tenements, and will doubtless surprise 
those who have derived their information upon this point from a knowledge 
of some wretched and confined portion of a populous city in either country, 
wher(^ notwithstanding the census returns, overcrowding does exist to a 
very alarming degree. 



OF TIIE UNION. 155 

The number of d-wellings in Great Britain and Ireland, according to 
the census of 1851, was 4,717,172. The number in the United States, 
in 1850, was 3,362,337. 

The relative distribution of the population among those of the United 
States has been given in the census returns, from which it Avould appear 
that upon an average there v/as a house for every six persons, and ninety- 
three houses for each hundred families, which are thus distributed : — 

„ , . , ^. . . Dwellings of white and Familie3 of white and Ratio of families to 100 

Geographical Divisions. free colored. free colored. inhabitants. 

New England, . . . 448,789 518,532 19.01 

Middle States, . . . 1,046,131 1,176,612 18.01 

Southern States, . . . 423,681 426,691 17.88 

Southwestern States, . 359,511 366,802 17.65 

Northwestern States, . 1,041,332 1,066,777 17.54 

California & Territories, 42,893 43,781 23.68 



Total, . . . 3,362,337 3,598,195 18.00 

" Upon the average for the Union, there are 16.82 houses for every 100 
white and free colored persons, or a little less than one house to every six 
persons, the ratio between the States varying from 15.17 dwellings to every 
109 persons in Rhode Island to 25.6 in California. The proportion of fami- 
lies to dwellings in the Union is as 107.01 to 100. In Utah and Oregon 
there is one dwelling to every family; in Louisiana 100 to every 110; in 
Connecticut 100 to 114; in Massachusetts and Rhode Island 100 to 126, 
&c., &c." — Compend. Census. 

In conjunction with this is placed a tabulated statement, embracing 
similar information concerning the several principal European States : — 



156 DWELLINGS IN EUROPE. 



COUNTKIES. 


Number of Persons to 
EACH Dwelling. 


Number of 
EACH '. 


■ Persons to 
Family. 


Number of Families to 
EAon Dwelling. 




1801. IS.Tl. 


1801. 


1851. 


1801. 


1851. 


Scotland, . . . 


5.46 T.80 


4.42 


4.81 


1.236 


1.C20 


England & "Wales. 


, 5.64 5.47 


4.69 


4.83 


1.204 


1.132 


Great Britain, . . 


5.61 5.71 


4.64 


4.83 


1.209 


1.182 


France, . . . . 


.... 4.85 


• ■ • • 


3.97 


a • ■ • 


1.222 


Austria,. . . . 


.... 6.89 


.... 


4.44 


..... 


1.551 


Prussia, . . . . 


8.13 





5.13 


. * • . 


1.585 



" The average number of loersons to each dwelling in Ireland, in 1851, 
was 6.35 ; and in Belgium in 1846, 5.42. 

The number of dwellings in Ireland in 1851 is stated at 1,047,735, 
making the total for the British empire, including the islands, 4,717,172. 
Adding the dwellings of the slave population, at least, on the average, as 
good as those of the operative classes of Europe, and estimating one dwel- 
ling for six slaves, the total dwellings in the United States will be 4,197,914. 
By comparison, one dwelling to every 5.82 persons in Grreat Britain, and 
one to every 5.52 pereons in the United States." — U. S. Census. 

It would seem from these statements, which must be considered as 
authentic, that ample provision has been made in each country included in 
these tables to provide a requisite supply of house room for its inhabitants ; 
and it might reasonably be anticipated, that with a sufficient number of 
houses to accommodate six of the entire population in each, that excessive 
overcrowding could not take place. 

The reports, hoAvever, of the English commission to enquire into the 
condition of large towns, as well as those of the Committee of the Legis- 
lature of New York, to enquire into the condition of tenant-houses in the 
city of New York, the Sanitary Committee of Massachusetts, and the report 
of the First Committee on Public Hygiene of the American Medical Asso- 
ciation, show that the tendency of the poorer classes of the inhabitants of 



INFLUENCE OE THE SEASONS. 157 

populous cities on botli continents is to congregate in large numbers in the 
most confined and unhealthy portions of the places in which they reside. 

The evidences are too manifest to admit of a denial of this fact, and it 
becomes a matter of importance therefore, in estimating the relative salu- 
brity of a country, to ascertain what portion of this class of inhabitants are 
residents of town, and what portion reside in the country. The estimate 
of Mr. De Bow has assigned to three-fourths of the population of the 
United States a country residence. The justness of this estimate is con- 
firmed by the statistics of the occupations of the free male inhabitants of 
this country over fifteen years of age, from which it would appear that of 
5,371,876, whose occupations were defined, 2,400,583 were engaged in 
agricultural pursuits. 

The registration returns of the respective States, although varying 
somewhat in detail, appear to corroborate the correctness of the census 
returns, in regard to the seasons upon which mortality makes the largest 
demands. Mr. Shattuck prepared a table showing the percentage of deaths 
in each of the four seasons which occurred in Massachusetts in the two 
years terminating with 1845, from which it would appear that the greatest 
mortality occurred in August and September, and the least in May and 
June : — 

Months. 
WiNTEE— January, February, March, 
Speing — April, May, June, .... 

SuMMBit — July, August, September, 
Autumn — October, JSTovember, December, . 

In this table the winter has been made to terminate with the 31st of 
March, instead of the 1st of March, as it is presumed to have done, in the 
computation of deaths given in the census returns. The English report 
adopts the same arrangement of months, as that selected by Mr. Shattuck. 



1844. 


1845. 


23.82 


24.70 


21.21 


20.41 


28.80 


29.86 


26.17 


25.03 



158 



INFLUENCE OF THE SEASONS 



As a diiference appears to exist as to tlie division of the seasons, it may 
be more satisfactory to define the months in which the mortality absolutely 
occurred, and with this view a table is presented, giving the number of 
deaths which occurred in the State of Massachusetts, during the three years 
terminating with January 1st, 1856, and the months in which they took 
place : — 



Months. 
January, . 
February, 
March, 
April, . 
May, 
June, 
July, 
August, 
September, 
October, 
JSTovember, 
December, 
Not stated. 

Aggregate, 



Males. 


Females. 


Unknown. 


Totals. 


2,296 


2,314 


10 


4,650 


2,213 


2,214 


36 


4,462 


2,555 


2,621 


43 


5,219 


2,450 


2,481 


21 


4,952 


2,227 


2,239 


38 


4,504 


2,103 


m 2,052 


17 


m 4,172 


2,T80 


2,679 


32 


5,491 


M3,716 


M3,733 


53 


M 7,602 


3,518 


3,524 


59 


7,131 


2,618 


2,733 


44 


5,395 


m 2,092 


2,116 


24 


4,232 


2,303 


2,378 


37 


4,718 


37 


40 


8 
422 


85 


30,937 


31,154 


62,513 



A similar table is given for the State of Kentucky for the year 



1853 :— 



Months. 


Deaths. 


Months. 


Deaths. 


January, 


. m544 


August, 


. M 1,053 


February, . 


626 


September, 


906 


March, . 


696 


October, 


802 


April, 


685 


ISTovember, 


631 


May, 


615 


December, 


723 


June, 
July, 


705 
984 


Unknown, 


441 



ON MORTALITY. 



159 



Aiicl likewise one tabulated iu a somewhat different manuer, but 
embracing the same information, for Rhode Island: — 





No. 


Percentage. 




No. 


Percentage. 


January, 


: 323 


6.83 


August, 


. M717 


14.93 


February, 


336 


7.00 


September, 


542 


11.28 


March, 


384 


7.99 


October, 


403 


8.39 


April, 


335 


6.97 


November, 


327 


6.81 


May, 


349 


7.27 


December, 


314 


6.54 


June, 


m310 


6.45 


Unknown, 


[6] 


< . • • 


July, 


458 


9.54: 


Totals, . 


4809 


100.00 



" The mortality of Providence for fifteen years, as shown in Dr. Collins' 
tables, corresponded very closely with the above. The proportions of 
deaths in the several months were as follows : — 





Per cent. 




Per cent 


January, 


6.81 


July, . 


9.55 


February. 


6.82 


August, 


. M14.96 


March, 


7.67 


September, . 


. 10.66 


April, 


6.76 


October, 


8.46 


May, . 


6.99 


JSTovember, . 


7.20 


June, 


m6.45 


December, 


7.67 



In connection with the mortality of the different seasons, as here 
presented, that which occurs upon the Pacific coast becomes important, as 
presenting a new arrangement of climactic influences, and a somewhat novel 
condition of society. The circumstances connected with the settlement of 
California are so peculiar as to render the facts derived from its vital 
statistics a matter of considerable interest, and it fortunately occurs that 
these facts, although embracing the results of but a single year, enables this 
comparison to be instituted. 



Males. 


Females. 


still-born. 


Total 


52 


19 


3 


74 


82 


32 


7 


121 


80 


25 


5 


110 


84 


29 


5 


118 


SO 


26 


7 


113 


75 


36 


5 


116 


74 


15 


5 


94 


82 


24 


9 


115 


68 


20 


3 


91 


63 


15 


10 


88 


61 


30 


8 


99 


60 


20 


7 


87 



160 INFLUENCE OF THE SEASONS 

The amiexed table shows the monthly mortality of San Francisco from 
1st June, 1855, to 1st June, 1856 : — 



June, 

•July, .... 

August, . 

September, 

October, 

November, . . . 

December, 

Jauuary, 

February, 

March, 

April, 

May, .... 

Totals, . . 861 291 74 1,226 



Dr. Sanger, from whose very excellent report to the Mutual Life Insur- 
ance Company, on the mortality of California, this table has been taken, adds : 
— "From this table, it will be observed that the greatest mortality occurs 
in autumn, and the least in the spring months — the former season having 
an excess of 73 deaths over the latter. The maximum of mortality is found 
in the month of July, when there were 121 deaths, and the minimum is 74 
deaths in June. If we examine the table comparatively with reference to 
the causes of fatality for these two mouths, we shall find that the excess 
of deaths in July is partly due to accidental causes, and partly to an 
intensity of endemic, epidemic or malarious influences prevailing during 
this month. 

" With respect to the seasons, Sacramento is similarly placed with San 
Francisco, in its mortality. We find, however, that the maximum of mor- 



ON MORTALITY IN CAI.IFOUNIA. 161 

tality took place in the month of November, when there were 30 deaths 
against the minimum of 15 deaths in February. 

"From January to August, the mortality averages- 17, and for the 
remaining five months over 25 monthly. From what has been stated, it is 
apparent that the greatest mortality, at Sacramento, occurs during the mala- 
rious season. This result is not surprising, because its location is such as to 
make it a favorite habitant for miasmatic disease. We regret that we have 
not before us the causes of the mortality for each month in the year, from 
an inspection of which we could arrive at more positive conclusions. 

" There are important reasons why we should regard the exhibit of 
mortality in San Francisco as an excess, when compared in proportionate 
terms with the general fatality of the State. We shall have occasion to 
refer to the mortality of Sacramento, in confirmation of our opinion. Sacra- 
mento City is the principal resting-place on the great thoroughfare to the 
northern mines, and in reference to its position geographically, ought to 
afford just comparative views of the rate of mortality from malarious causes 
in this immense valley. 

"In the first place, San Francisco is the gateway by which the large 
emigration constantly arriving here, as the commercial emporium of the 
Pacific, becomes gradually dispersed over the whole interior. The principal 
influx is from the Atlantic States, and of late years the routes via the 
Panama or Nicaragua Isthmus have been preferred to the more tedious 
journey across the plains. The almost malignant type of miasmatic fever, 
endemic, in the land crossings from ocean to ocean, is well known. To cut 
short premises, already familiar enough to the public, from the severity of 
past experience, we are having a population thrown upon us semi-monthly, 
to a greater or less extent, an invalid population, although with the 
improved facilities for transit not likely to suffer so much in the future. 

" Then, again, we have had the usual history of scurvy and typhus 
20 



162 DK. HANGER ON THE 

attaclied to our emigrant ships iu the long sea voyages around Cape Horn, 
from Australia, the Pacific Islands and the East Indies, under circumstances 
where a large number of human beings are crowded together in bulk, with 
limited accommodation for their wants, breathing a close and impure 
atmosphere, and provided, perhaps, with a scanty supply of nourishment, 
or one unsuited to the requirements of life at sea. The fatality from these 
causes has sometimes been frightful among the Chinese emigrants. For 
example, in the months of August and September, 1854, out of 4700 Chinese 
who arrived here, there Avas a mortality of 300 in port. 

" In two of the vessels that arrived here during these months, there is 
a reported fatality of one out of five of the passengers during the voyage. 
From an inspection of the books of entry, at the Custom-House, there is 
reason to doubt whether the captains of ships have in all instances during 
this period made faithful returns of the extent of the mortality occurring on 
shipboard. 

" Lastly, our city, in asanitory sense, may be considered the hospital of 
the State. The invalid, from all portions of the interior, naturally enough 
finds his way to San Francisco, perhaps to seek a change in climate, or 
responsible medical advice, or to extend the facilities for successful treat- ' 
ment, and to secure for himself the full enjoyment of those comforts and 
personal attentions which his enfeebled condition demands, and which are 
most amply afforded in the metropolis of a new country. 

" The mortality in our public institutions, the County Hospital and the 
U. S. Marine Hospital, illustrates the force of our observations. The for- 
mer averages in the neighborhood of 170 patients constantly under treat- 
ment, the latter about 200, exclusively seamen. The combined mortality 
from these hospitals has been 16 per cent, of the entire mortality of the 
city. It should be remarked, that more than one-third of the patients 
received into the County Hospital are properly residents in other counties, 



MORTALITY OF CALIFORNIA. 1G3 

who may come here voluntarily, or, as there is reason to believe, in many 
instances by the direct connivance of the local authorities to free themselves 
from the burden of their support.* 

The registration returns of many of the States, among their other 
numerous defects, fail to indicate the months in \Yhich the deaths included 
in their reports took place. There is a sufficient uniformity among those 
which have not failed in this particular to show that the maximum of 
mortality in the United States is reached about the close of summer or the 
beginning of autumn, and its minimum about the termination of winter or 
beginning of spring. 

This is precisely the reverse from what occurs in England and Sweden ; 
the maximum in the latter country being attained in April, and the mini- 
mum in October, nor is the month upon which the maximum and minimum 
of mortality falls the same in every part of the United States. It has 
alr,eady been seen that a difference in this regard was indicated by the 
census returns; and were the registration reports of the various States 
sufficiently numerous, and accurate in detail, it would be possible to show 
an important difference in this respect between the great geographical 
divisions of the country. 

As a general rule, however, the law of mortality which prevails in the 
United States is tolerably constant and uniform in attaining its highest 
altitude in that season of the year when summer merges into autumn, 
and when the heat is most intense. Nor does the law appear to be affected 
by a town or country residence, the prevalence or absence of an epidemic, 
ahealthy or unhealthy season, but pursues its course with great uniformity 
year after year, and invariably demands of this particular season the largest 
number of its victims. 

■"' Repovt on the Mortality of California, by A. F. Sanger, M. D. 



164 



EFFECT OF LOCALITY 



In order to illustrate the effect of locality upon the rate of mortality, 
the annexed table, showing the mortality of various cities in different parts 
of the United States, is introduced : — 













Per cent. 


Boston, 


39 


years. 


1811 to 1849, 


. 


2.45 


Lowell, 


13 


a 


1836 to 1848, 


. 


. 2.11 


ISTew York, 


45 


a 


1805 to 1849, 


. 


2.96 


Philadelphia, 


34 


k( 


1807 to 1840, 


. 


. 2.55 


Baltimore, 


14 


a 


1836 to 1849, 


; Whites, . 


2.49 

. 2.48 


Charleston, 


27 


a 


J822 to 1848, K 


Blacks, 
Both, 


2.64 
. 2.57 


Savannah, 


8 


a 


1840 to 1S47, 


Whites, 


4.16 


New Orleans, 


H 


u 


1846 to 1850, 


. 


. 8.10 



This table, which was prepared with great care by Dr. Simonds, of 
New Orleans, exhibits the startling difference of 6 per cent, in the annual 
mortality between the healthiest and most unhealthy localities, and further 
shows that in each particular place a rate of mortality different from that 
of all the others prevails. Had the opportunity presented itself of ascer- 
taining the difference between town and country in each of these localities, 
it would doubtless have exhibited a condition of things highly in favor of 
a country life. 

But the most remarkable difference is, that which is exhibited between 
the cities of the north and south, as represented on the one side by New 
York and Philadelphia, and on the other by Savannah and New Orleans. 
In neither of these instances does there exist a means of comparing them 
with the rural population by which they are surrounded, other than such 
as is afforded by the census returns. Were there in existence State Regis- 
ters, as accurate and carefully compiled as those of Massachusetts, by which 
this comparison could be made, they would doubtless furnish information, 
both curious and instructive. 



UPON MORTALITY. 165 

Dr. Simonds, in his remarks on the high rate of mortality of New 
Orleans, says, that it has been in a great degree attributed to the reckless- 
ness of its floating population — to which opinion he is not disposed to 
assent. 

" The only idea," he adds, " to be attached to the term floating popu- 
lation is that of persons who, though in the city, have not by length of 
residence acquired citizenship, or identified themselves with the city. This 
population must therefore consist of three classes — those who visit the city 
chiefly for pleasure and amusement ; those who have visited us for the trans- 
action of business, to dispose of their crops, purchase their supplies, &c., &c. ; 
and those who have come here for the purpose of earning a livelihood, or 
of making a fortune, whose intention is to settle here and make it their 
place of residence, if they can do so consistently with their future welfare. 
The first two classes are here but for a few days, or at most a few weeks ; 
they have left behind their ties of family or business that prevent a pro- 
longed sojournment in the city ; they are ready to flee at a moment's 
warning on an alarm of general sickness or a little personal indisposition ; 
they reside at hotels and boarding-houses, in which, so far as my observa- 
tion and inquiries go, there are but few deaths ; and these classes, therefore, 
cannot contribute essentially to the mortality of the city. 

" But is the floating population of New Orleans so much larger than 
that of other cities, as to account for a mortality double that of any other 
city ? Has New Orleans a greater number of visitors in the pursuit either 
of pleasure or of business than New York ? Certainly not. During a few 
months, say for half the year. New Orleans contains a large number of 
strangers, and also a large number of persons who claim citizenship and do 
business here, but who fly during the hot and sickly season to more con- 
genial and salubrious climes. But New York is constantly thronged with 
visitors — its business season may be said to continue during the whole year — 



166 DR. SIMONS ON THE 

and there is no season during which there is not collected together a large 
number of seekers after pleasure. Places of amusement, which are sup- 
ported by strangers, are with us closed during a considerable portion of the 
year, — but not so in New York. Our hotels are deserted during the sum- 
mer — theirs are always filled. But with us even a large portion of the 
private residences are closed for two, three, or four months of the year. 

" The third class of the floating population consists chiefly of immi- 
grants and adventurers, of perhaps but small or no means, who have cut off 
the ties that bound them elsewhere, and who, though but a short time resi- 
dent here, are, to all intents and purposes, our own population. This class 
is enumerated in our census, pay taxes, contribute by their labor to the 
prosperity of the city, and will (if they escape the hand of death) become 
as truly citizens as seven-tenths of our present population, of whom indeed 
they colistitute a large proportion. That this class contributes largely to 
swell our bills of mortality, is indisputable ; but that the deaths from this 
class should be included in our calculations on the health of the city, is 
equally certain. 

" If New Orleans really has proportionally a larger floating population 
than other cities, the reason is very obvious. Of the number attracted 
hither by the advantages of the city, a greater proportion die speedily, and 
consequently a smaller proportion live sufficiently long to become identified 
with the city. What length of time is requisite to change the character of 
those who come to reside in the city, from a floating to a permanent popu- 
lation ? When this is settled, the record of deaths can be examined with 
reference to this question. Life Insurance offices recognise no fixed period 
of time, but require that the applicant shall have experienced the yellow 
fever, which on an average will be epidemic every three years. Our State 
laws require two years residence to entitle a citizen of other States to be 
considered a citizen of this State. The United States requires the foreign 



MORTALITY OF NJEW ORLEANS. 167 

immigraut to have resided five years in the United States. The annual 
reports of the Charity Hospital have generally stated the period of resi- 
dence as under or over three years. Let us say, then, that three years is a 
fixir average to constitute the stranger a citizen in this respect. Of one 
hundred persons settling in New York in three yeojs, nine will have died 
and ninety-one will become permanently resident ; while of one hundred 
settling in New Orleans, twenty-four will have died in the three years, 
leaving but seventy-six permanent residents, the law of mortalit}^ of the 
general population being applied to the class of unacclimated. This state- 
ment is not strictly accurate — in fact, the difference would be very much 
greater, as those who maintain the position that our mortality is caused by 
foreigners, and that for natives and the acclimated our city is very healthy, 
must admit a much greater difference in the mortality of the newly arrived 
population. Again, suppose that on the 1st July, 1847, one thousand per- 
sons settled in each city, there would remain to be enumerated in the 
census on the 1st July, 1850, less than seven hundred and sixty persons in 
New Orleans, and more than nine hundred and ten persons in every other 
large city. Our neglect of sanitary measures, our indifference to the 
deaths of strangers, and our criminal disregard of the lives and welfare of 
those who settle among us, has done more to retard the advance of New 
Orleans than all the assertions of its salubrity can possibly remove. 

" It may be said, however, that the floating population are foreign im- 
migrants, who are merely passing through our city. Let us, then, examine 
the statistics of immigration, to see what light they throw upon this point. 
According to a statement published in connection with the reports of the 
New Orleans Charity Hospital, the total arrivals at New Orleans from foreign 
ports, coastwise, and by steamboats, during seven years, from 1842 to 1848, 
was 222,122 — while the arrivals at New York fi'om foreign ports alone 
during the same period, was 738,462. (Hunt's Magazine, XXL, 657.) But 



168 DR. BARTON ON THE 

how do the arrivals at the two cities from foreign ports alone compare ? 
During the year 1847 the total arrivals in the United States was 250,000, 
of whom 166,110 landed in New York — leaving but 90,000 for the rest of 
the United States. (Ibid.) Thus about two-thirds (66.44 per cent.) of all 
foreign immigrants lauded in New York. Again, from 1845 to 1848 inclu- 
sive, four years, 104,293 persons arrived from foreign ports in New Orleans 
— number considerably less than the population of New Orleans and La- 
fayette by the late census — while 556,209 arrived in New York, being more 
than the population of that city at the last enumeration. The attempt to 
excuse the great mortality of New Orleans by referring it to the vcist 
number of immigrants landed in our city, is not sustained by the facts." * 

Are these ill-fated cities, in which mortality rages to such a fearful 
eztent, dark spots in the midst of an otherwise sunny landscape, or do they 
bear in their high rate of mortality but a just comparison with the sur- 
rounding country ? Dr. Barton, of New Orleans, whose exertions, in all 
matters pertaining to public health and philanthropic objects, have been 
unwearied, has prepared a series of tables, from the information furnished 
to him by the marshal, which divides the mortality of the State, as col- 
lected by the United States authorities among the respective districts in 
which it occurred, and gives for the State of Louisiana a detailed statement, 
which should have been extended to the whole Union : — 

STATEMENT OF POPULATION AHD DEATHS IN WESTEEN LOUISIANA, 1850. 



Inhabitants. 


Total. 


Deaths from Choleua. 


Deaths rEH, Cent. 


Free. Slaves. 


Free. Slaves. 


Without Cholera. With Cholera. 


90,312 121,158 


2n,4'70 


103 561 


5.09 5.22 


EASTEEN 


DISTEICT 


OF LOUISIANA, INCLUDING NEAV OELEANS. 


Inhabitants. 


Total. 


Deaths from Cholera. 


Deaths pee Cent. 


Free. Slaves. 


Free. Slaves. 


Witliout Cholera. With Cholera. 


181,300 122,790 


30-1,069 


965 1040 


3.23 4.34 



Simonda on the Sauitar_y Condition of New Orleans, p. 42. 



MORTALITY OF LOUISANA. 169 

These tables exhibit a mortality without a parallel in the United States, 
and show that there are causes in operation throughout the State tending 
to render it eminently unhealthy. Dr. Barton alleges that — 

" The period adopted for taking the mortality of the State, with its 
census, has been an unfortunate one for Louisiana, for during the whole 
period embraced under the order to the marshals and their deputies for 
this enumeration, viz., the year ending in June, 1850, has been precisely 
one of those periodical cycles alluded to in the former part of this report as 
about the septem-decennial period for the return of epidemic cholera. Such 
has been the fact, and large mortality has resulted in the whole zymotic 
class (to which cholera belongs) ; for although I have been enabled to 
separate the cholera from the other mortality in most of the parishes, yet 
the mortality has been much larger in the congenerous diseases of this 
class, than usual ; and many parishes of the western district of the State, 
where we know that the mortality is not in ordinary years more than one 
to one-and-a-half per cent., has been made, by this return, to show four, five, 
six, eight per cent., and upwards ! This is to be deeply regretted, and the 
only remedy to be found is in the enactment of a registration law by the 
State Legislature, through which the actual sanitary condition can be made 
known annually." * 

With the fact that the mortality of New Orleans has rarely fallen 
below four per cent., and has for the last four and a-half years averaged 
8.10 per cent., according to Dr. Simonds' estimate, and according to Dr. 
Barton, for the entire period of its existence, 4.87 per cent., it cannot be 
considered otherwise than an extremely unhealthy city. Nor can a rural 



* Barton's Vital Statistics of Louisiana, p. 21. 

21 



170 DR. NOTT ON 

population, whose mortality reaches 5.22 per cent, as in the case of the 
western parishes of Louisiana, be called a healthy one. The remarkably 
low rate of mortality which was found to obtain in some of the eastern 
parishes of the State, and which appear more striking- in contrast with the 
great mortality of the other portions of the State, would lead to the belief 
that an amelioration of its condition might be eifected ; but when, and in 
what mode, is left for those who are familiarized to each locality to deter- 
mine. 

To what extent the baneful influences which are seen to have foothold 
in Louisiana extend to the neighboring States, cannot, in the absence of 
more exact information, be accurately judged. It unfortunately happens, 
that in the contiguous State of Mississippi, which it is feared is more 
unhealthy than the returns have made it, the number of deaths were more 
carelessly noted than in any other State. That these influences do extend 
for some distance along the Gulf of Mexico, including the lowlands, which 
lie contiguous to its borders in the Texas, Mississippi, Alabama and Florida, 
and gradually lose themselves in the more elevated regions of these States, 
appears to be quite evident. It is quite certain that the section of country 
embraced within the limits just defined, is possessed of features peculiar to 
itself, and cannot be considered as a standard by which to characterize any 
other section. 

Dr. Nott, of Mobile, in alluding to these characteristics says, that in 
the Southern States are high and healthy sand hills, placed in immediate 
contiguity with the rich alluvial lands of the rivers. The former are 
healthy, while on the low lands the most deadly malarial fevers prevail in 
summer and autumn. "Let us suppose," he remarks, "that a thousand 
inhabitants of Great Britain or Germany, should be landed at Mobile about 
the month of May, and one-thii-d placed on the hills, one-third in town, and 
the remainder in the fenny lands around the latter. At the end of six 



SOUTH-WESTERN MORTALITY. 171 

months the result would be, that the first third would complain much of 
heat, would perspire enormously, become enervated, but no one would be 
seriously sick, and probably none would die from the effects of the climate. 
The second third, or those in the city, if it happened to be a year of 
epidemic yellow fever, would, to say the least, be decimated, or even 
one-half might die, while the resident acclimated population were enjoying 
perfect health. The remaining portion, or those in the fenny districts, 
would escape yellow fever, but most of them would be attacked with 
intermittent and remittent fevers, bowel affections, and all forms of malarial 
or marsh diseases, fewer would die, but a larger proportion would come 
out with broken constitutions.*" 

Independent of the northern and southern climates, which have fre- 
quently been alluded to, and which find their types in Massachusetts and 
New York on the one side, and Kentucky and the Carolinas on the other, 
is this southwestern climate, stamped by characteristics bestowed upon it 
by its proximity to the Gulf of Mexico, and the peculiar character of the 
shore which borders it, and which are observed in their more complete 
development upon the borders of the Gulf, within the territory of Mexico. 

It has been seen that each of these divisions possesses marked and 
characteristic features, distinguishing the one from the other, and rendering 
them amenable to different laws of mortality. The laws by which the two 
former are apparently regulated, correspond pretty nearly to those of simi- 
larly situated countries in Europe, but in no European country have features 
of mortality been discovered which would assimilate in character to the 
southwestern part of the United States. 



* Nott and Gliddon's Indigenous Races, p. 364. 



172 CLASSIFICATION OF 



CHAPTER XIV. 



DISEASES. 



Ill foiTiiing an estimate of the comparative healthfulness of a county as 
a whole, or of individual portions of it isolated from the others, it is neces- 
sary to ascertain the chief diseases which furnish the outlets for human life, 
and their relative prevalence in the one or the other sections. 

Without positive information concerning the ages at death, the infor- 
mation afforded by a simple record of the diseases which terminated life 
would be valueless, but with this information they become of the highest 
value ; hence observations made in small places where the diseases can be 
accurately registered, are usually considered of more value in furnishing 
data for calculation, than in larger ones where the record is carelessly or 
inefficiently collated. 

It has heretofore been found exceedingly difficult to arrange such a 
registration for diseases in large places where no possible information 
concerning them could be obtained, except such as the register afforded, 
as would clearly identify them, and admit of deductions being drawn from 
them ; thus, Boston, New York, Charleston, Baltimore and New Orleans 
have each had their peculiar classification, frequently so diverse in arrange- 
ment as not to admit of comparison, without great caution. . 



DIFFERENT DISEASES. 173 

This difficulty has been remedied within a few years by the very 
general adoption of Farr's classification of diseases, which all the States, 
and most of the cities, at present employ. 

This classification divides diseases into two general classes of zymotic 
and sporadic diseases — the former term being used to designate epidemic, 
endemic and contagious diseases, and the latter those whose cause is found 
in the individual attacked by the disease. An example of a zymotic disease 
is given in Asiatic cholera, and of sporadic in dropsy. Zymotic diseases 
usually prevail in groups, attacking at the same time a large number of 
individuals, and are prevalent at one time, and absent at another. Sporadic 
diseases, on the contrary, occur singly and scattered, and under like circum- 
stances are generally prevalent. 

An additional division is made into twelve classes, which refer to the 
part of the body attacked by disease, one of these being placed under the 
head of zymotic, which is a class by itself, and eleven under the head of 
sporadic, thus : 

CLASSES OF DISEASE. 

1. Zymotic diseases. 

SPORADIC DISEASES. 



2. Of uncertain or general seat. 

3. Of the nervous system. 

4. Of the organs of respiration. 

5. Of the organs of circulation. 
G. Of the digestive organs. 

7. Of the urinary organs. 



8. Of the organs of generation. 

9. Of the organs of locomotion. 

10. Of the integumentary system. 

11. Of old age. 

12. Of external causes. 



Since the adoption of this arrangement, which is very methodical, 
and at the same time quite simple, the returns of diseases have been much 



174 GENERAL MOETALITY 

more reliable and easily classified. In collecting the number of deaths 
which took place in the United States, in the year 1849-50, this classifica- 
tion was given to the United States marshals and their assistants; and 
although they were not acquainted with the names of diseases and their 
mode of arrangement, yet, with the aid of this nomenclature, they were 
generally enabled to make a tolerably accurate return of the diseases 
returned or described to them. 

This information has been collated, and classified in such a manner as 
to embrace within a, few tables the names of the diseases, the season in 
which deaths took place, the age, sex, nativity, occupation and color of the 
deceased, from which it will be seen that the deaths from Zymotic diseases, 
were 131,813:— 

Of which died of Cholera, 31,506 

" " Diarrhoea, 10,706 

" " Dysentery, 20,556 

" " Fever, general, .... 18,108 

" " Fever, scarlet, .... 9,584 

" " Fever, typhoid, .... 13,099 



The deaths from Sporadic diseases and unknown, were, 192 210 

Of which died of Dropsy, . . . . . . 11,217 

" Cephalitis, . . ... 6,424 

" Convulsions, 6,072 

" " " Consumption, . . . . 33,516 

" Pneumonia, 12,130 

It will be seen by an examination of the chief causes of death, that a 
larger proportion of deaths are embraced in the slow and noiseless army 
of consumption, than in the more terrific and apparently fatal one of Asiatic 



OF THE UNION. 175 

cholera. It is quite certaiu, that the deaths from both of these diseases 
have been under-estimated, and probably in nearly a like proportion. The 
deaths from consumption, in Massachusetts, and the northern parts of 
Europe, usually exceed 2,000, out of every 10,000 deaths, and their relative 
proportion to the number of deaths in every country and under every 
variety of climate is very large. For the purpose of instituting a com- 
parison between different parts of the Union, in order to ascertain the rela- 
tive prevalence of this and other prominent diseases in each, the foUowino- 
table has been introduced, showing the number of deaths from the several 
causes named, which took place in each state named : — 





Ohio. 


New Yokk. 
^ * 


Makiland. 




Deaths. 


Pel- ct. 


Deaths. 


Per ct. 


Deaths. 


Per ct. 


Apoplexy, 


123 


0.42 


356 


0.77 


60 


0.62 


Cholera, 


5,808 


20.05 


5,822 


10.57 


166 


1.72 


Consumption, 


2,558 


8.83 


6,691 


14.67 


1,101 


11.44 


Dysentery, 


2,563 


8.83 


3,691 


8.11 


607 


6.30 


Fever (general) 


IjlTO 


5.10 


799 


1.53 


139 


1.44 


" Bilious, 


201 


0.68 


330 


0.72 


264 


2.74 


" Congestive, 


112 


0.38 


73 


0.16 


44 


0.45 


" Typhus, 


750 


2.59 


1,037 


2.27 


360 


3.74 


" Scarlet, 


1,301 


4.49 


1,028 


2.26 


561 


5.83 


" Yellow, 


5 


0.02 


16 


0.03 


6 


0.06 


Disease of Heart, 


137 


0.47 


545 


1.19 


129 


1.34 


Old Age, 


606 


1.74 


1,393 


3.05 


278 


2.88 


Paralysis, 


197 


0.67 


431 


0.94 


105 


1.08 


Pneumonia, 


895 


3.08 


1,661 


3.20 


149 


1.54 


Scrofula, 


101 


0.34 


177 


0.38 


35 


0.36 


Dropsy, 


624 


2.15 


1,496 


3.28 


312 


3.24 



This statement would appear to indicate a greater prevalence of con- 
sumption and dysentery in northern, and of fevers and dropsical affections 
in southern latitudes. Were this bsolutely true, it is easy to see what 



176 



INFLUENCE OF THE SEASONS. 



important results would flow from an exact knowledge of the circumstances 
connected with the mortality of the different latitudes. The returns are not 
sufficiently accurate to warrant the assumption of such an important con- 
clusion from them alone, but the fact that neighboring States in one latitude 
and contiguous States in another, should exhibit results which naturally 
lead to such an inference, is a sufficient reason for making a very careful 
examination of such facts as would sustain or overturn the conclusion. 

The present mortuary returns of the general government and the 
States, do not supply sufficient numbers of these facts to warrant the estab- 
lishment of a deduction from them. Did consumption prevail so much 
more extensively at the north than at the south, as these returns would 
appear to show, it might naturally be supposed that its cases would be 
increased, and their progress accelerated by the rigid season of winter, but 
an examination of the returns show that the effect of the seasons upon con- 
sumption is comparatively slight, and that if winter produces any eifect at 
all, it is rather an ameliorating than an injurious one. The distribution of 
the deaths from consumption among the seasons, is as follows : — 



Spring. 

9679 



Summer. 
8,742 



Autumn . 
7,982 



Winter. 
6,800 



Below will be found a table, embracing the deaths from consumption 
in Massachusetts for five years, terminating with 1855 : — 



Months. 


Totals. 


Percentage. 


Months. 


Totals. 


Percentage 


January, 


1,744 


7.90 


August, 


1,884 


8.53 


February, 


1,691 


7.66 


September, 


1,947 


8.81 


March, 


1,966 


8.90 


October, 


1,850 


8.38 


April, 


1,948 


8.82 


ITovember, 


1,739 


7.87 


May, 


1,942 


8.78 


December, 


1,869 


8.46 


June, 


1,698 
1,790 


7.60 
8.10 


Unknown, 


23 


.10 


July, 


0.«> AQI 


inn f\c\ 



UPON MORTALITY. 177 

The deaths in Kentucky from consumption, in 1852, were 956, or 9.20 
per cent, of the deaths from all known causes. In 1853, the deaths from 
this disease were 846, or 11.45 per cent, of all the deaths. The months 
in which the deaths took place are as follows : — 



Months. 


Totals. 


Moaths. 


Totals 


January, 


. . 57 


July, . 


75 


February, 


67 


August, . 


69 


March, 


72 


September, . 


67 


April, 


104 


October, . 


62 


May, . 


78 


November, 


62 


June, 


. . 79 


December, 


64 



From these various tables, it appears that the two maximum periods 
of death from consumption are in the spring and autumn, and the two mini- 
mum periods in winter and summer. In this respect the observations made 
in Kentucky corresponded very nearly with those made in Massachusetts. 
They likewise agree as to the age upon which consumption falls most 
heavily, which is between twenty and thirty years of age. One-fourth of 
all the deaths which occur from this disease are singled from those who are 
at this interesting period of life. The next most fatal period is that between 
thirty and forty, after which the proportion of deaths, as compared with 
other diseases, or with itself at these periods, rapidly declines. 

The proportion of female to male deaths is greater than in most other 
diseases; in Massachusetts they bear the relation of 59.06 females to 40.80 
males, and in Kentucky a proportion nearly corresponding to this. 

But, although the characteristics of the disease are identical in both 
places, and exhibit a remarkable similarity in the season of the year, the 
period of life, and the sex upon which it falls, yet the relation which it bears 
to other diseases, as developed by these returns, is widely different, and 
appears to corroborate the census mortality returns. 
22 



178 EFFECT OF LOCALITY 

Dr. Bowditch, of Boston, under the auspices of the Massachusetts 
Medical Society, is making a series of careful examinations throughout the 
State as to its origin and possible means of prevention, from which it is 
hoped many valuable facts may be derived, even should he fail to obtain 
any information by which its progress can be materially arrested. 
Were it possible to extend a series of similar observations, minute and 
accurate enough to determine its relative fatality to the number living 
or the aggregate dead over the whole Union, their importance would 
be greatly above the expenditure required for their prosecution, or the 
labor necessary for their accomplishment. The facts already elicited lead 
to the belief that results might be obtained, which would not only be gra- 
tifying but in the highest degree beneficial to humanity. 

Next to consumption, dysentery is the most fatal disease of the northern 
States, and a very serious one at the south. Unlike consumption, its 
heaviest demand is made upon the earlier years of life — full one-half of all 
the deaths from this disease taking place in the first five years of existence. 
It also differs from consumption in the fact that it is amenable to the in- 
fluence of the seasons. It prevails to the greatest extent in the months of 
August and September, and almost entirely ceases in the depth of winter 
and early spring. 

In Kentucky, dysentery is so fatal a disease, that it is styled by the 
Registrar "the great scourge of the State." In 1852, there were 1,923 
cases, which constituted 18.47 per cent, of the entire mortality of the State. 
During this year epidemic cholera prevailed to a considerable extent, and 
caused 722 deaths. In the following year, 1853, its intensity was con- 
siderably diminished ; but it yet furnished a large item for the annual list of 
deaths — the number was 901. In some portions of the State it was par- 
ticularly fatal ; as an example, out of 113 deaths returned from Simpson 
county, 84 were ascribed to dysentery. 



UPON MOETALITY. 179 

These tAvo diseases select most of their victims fi'om comparatively 
early life ; and although no age is exempt ii'om them, yet the period inter- 
vening between twenty and thirty years of age is that upon which the 
former falls most severely, and that from birth to five years, the one most 
susceptible to the latter. Nor are they confined exclusively or mostly to 
city life, but are found to prevail in the balmy atmosphere of rural districts, 
as well as the confined and vitiated air of town. 

The returns of Kentucky, as made manifest in the registration reports 
just cited, and by the mortality tables of the census of 1850, exhibit a 
larger proportion of deaths from dysentery than the other States whose 
latitude is equally low. This corresponds very well with the prevalent opin- 
ion heretofore entertained by the medical men of Kentucky, unsustained 
by statistical evidence, and gleaned exclusively from observation. 

How far the peculiar geological formation, upon which the soil of the 
greater part of the State reposes, which consists of a disentegrated grey 
and blue limestone, contributes to bestow this unfortunate precedence on 
Kentucky, or whether it in truth exists to the extent hitherto supposed or 
revealed by the returns of deaths, are questions that can only be solved by 
a more careful notation of the deaths occurring within the State, and the 
rendition of similar returns from other southern States. 

Fever, in all its varieties, except scarlet fever, which is essentially a 
disease of childhood, and dropsy, fall with greatest intensity upon middle 
and advanced age. An examination of the census table, giving the ages 
at which death took place from particular diseases, as well as the returns 
made by the separate States, fully sustain this opinion, and at the same time 
show that a greater relative proportion of these diseases occur in southern 
than in northern climates. 

The annexed statement shows the percentage of deaths which occurred 



180 EFFECT OF LOCALITY 

in Massachusetts for a period of twelve yeare and in Kentucky for one 
year, from each of the causes above named. : — 





Consumption. 


Dysentery. 


Fever. 


Dropsy. 


Massacliusetts, 


. 22.44 


7.54 


7.08 


2.34 


Kentucky, . , 


, . 9.20 


18.47 


15.18 


2.21 



This statement covers a period sufficiently long, in the State of Massa- 
chusetts, to correct the errors of a single year, and without doubt gives a 
faithful representation of the average per cent, of mortality from each of 
the diseases included in the list. The period covered by Kentucky, how- 
ever, is too short to be equally reliable; besides, in the year indicated, 1852, 
dysentery prevailed in an epidemic form throughout the State, and was un- 
usually fatal. The comparison is the best at hand, and gives some concep- 
tion of the relative prevalence of consumption, fever and dropsy, in each of 
the respective States. 

The purpose, however, is not so much to show the relative prevalence 
of the one or the other disease, in these two States alone, as to indicate by 
their ratios of mortality, taken as types of a large extent of country, the 
particular classes of disease to which each are most exposed, and which 
prove the most destructive to human life. 

It is to be regretted that no series of statistics of mortality, equally re- 
liable with those of Massachusetts, are to be found in any southern State, 
with which a comparison might be made with more satisfactory results than 
the one just instituted. It is of the first importance to ascertain the rela- 
tive prevalence of particular diseases in particular latitudes, because as each 
falls with greatest violence upon some particular period of life, it is possible 
to arrive at tolerably correct conclusions in regard to the most fatal age in 
different climates, by a knowledge of the diseases most common to them. 

Thus it would be fair to infer, that if the diseases which have been 



UPON MORTALITY. 



181 



mentioned as having most prevalence at the north or the south, as the case 
may be, really do prevail in either latitude to the extent which has been 
indicated, then the ratio of the population in either section, at particular 
ages, will indicate their presence or absence. 

With the view to develope this proposition, a table giving the per 
cent, of the several ages of the white population of each of the States to the 
total population of these States, as deduced from the census of 1850, is 
introduced : — 



States and Territories. 



Alabama 

Arkansas 

California 

Columbia, District of. , 

Connecticut 

Delaware. 

Florida 

Georgia 

Illinois 

Indiana 

Iowa 

Kentucky 

Louisiana 

Maine , 

Maryland 

Massachusetts , 

Michigan , 

Mississippi 

Missouri , 

New Hampshire , 

New Jersey 

New York , 

North Carolina 

Ohio 

Pennsylvania 

Rhode Island 

South Carolina 

Tennessee 

Texas , 

Vermont 

Virginia 

Wisconsin 

("Minnesota 

Terri- J New Mexico 
tories. j Oregon 

[Utah 



Total. 



2.Y5 



88 
03 
11 
66 
Si 
68 
78 
10 
57 
70 
67 
.47 
86 
60 
57 
13 
35 
45 
.61 
.48 
.20 
.68 
.62 
.80 
.19 
.58 
.77 
.69 
.13 
89 
.66 
42 
44 
.30 
.27 
30 



12.06 



13.83 



12.28 



10.89 



18.65 



12.36 



4.15 
3.22 
2.41 
5.41 
6.96 
4.94 
4.40 
4.03 
4.00 
4.30 
3.72 
4.22 
3.64 
6.03 
5.13 
6.05 
4.57 
3.86 
3.73 
7.46 

55 
5.39 
4.95 
4.56 
5.07 
.06 
4.98 
4.12 
3.62 
6.72 
6.02 
4. S3 

01 
4.67 
3.26 

75 

4.90 



1.96 
1.36 
.50 
2.64 
4.51 
2.65 
1.95 
2.25 
1.70 
1.97 
1.51 
2.30 
1.46 
3.66 
2.76 
3.71 
2.17 
1.72 
1.59 
4.83 
3.21 
2.95 
2.82 
2.59 
2.84 
3.76 
2.72 
2222 
1.36 
4.26 
2.84 
1.82, 
1.03 
2.76 
1.13 
1.71 

2.67 



.80 

.43 

.09 

.90 

2.33 

1.14 

.66 

.92 

.64 

.69 

.43 

1.00 

.47 

1.80 

1.16 

1.81 

.71 

.62 

.50 

2.67 

1.41 

1.29 

1.31 

1.02 

1.20 

1.78 

1.23 

1.03 

.39 

.26 

1.28 

.50 

.33 

.93 

.16 

.47 

1.15 



.23 
.09 
.03 
.23 
.78 
.26 
.16 
.30 
.11 
.17 
.09 
.31 
.11 
.69 
.30 
.68 
.14 
.15 
.12 
.96 
.44 
.38 
.40 
.26 
.33 
.56 
.41 
.32 
.09 
.76 
.39 
.10 
.08 
.52 
.02 
.04 

.34 



.04 
.01 
.01 
.03 
.08 
.03 
.03 
.06 
.01 
.03 
.01 
.06 
.02 
.06 
.04 
.06 
.02 
.02 
.01 
.13 
.04 
.04 
.06 
.03 
.03 
.06 
.08 
.05 
.01 
.08 
.06 
.01 
.03 
.14 
.01 



.04 



.01 
.01 



.01 



.01 
.0 



.01 



.0 

.01 

.01 

!oi 



.07 



.02 
.02 
.73 
.04 
.07 
.05 
.01 
.02 
.09 
.03 
.03 
.02 
.12 
.14 

!i2 

.03 
.05 
.02 
.02 
.03 
.05 
.02 
.03 
.05 
.01 
.03 
.03 
.12 
.01 
.03 
.06 

.23 

.60 



.05 



I 



182 EFFECT OF LOCALITY UPON MORTALITY. 

From this table it would appear that, as a general rule, the per cent, 
in the earlier years of life, to the whole population, is greater in the south- 
ern than in the northern States ; that this diiFerence disappears in middle 
life, from 20 to 50, when, unless affected by migration, the proportions 
become about the same in both latitudes, and that from this period the per 
cent, is steadily in favor of a northern climate until the last, when it returns 
again to the south. New Hampshire, which exhibits a smaller percentage 
of population in the earlier years, shows a largely increased one in the 
declining period of life. 

This is, doubtless, in part due to the emigration which has for years 
been at work in draining the State of its more youthful population, while 
it has left a large proportion of the aged at home ; but the universality of the 
law requires some more general and effective means than emigration to 
account for its action, and this is doubtless to be found in the relative preva- 
lence in different latitudes or states of one or the other of the diseases 
through which the flood of humanity flows to its destined goal. 



AGE AT DEATH. 183 



CHAPTER XV. 



AGE AT DEATH, 



One of the most valuable elements connected with mortality returns, 
is a correct enumeration of the ages at which death takes place, for, as it is 
possible by a knowledge of the diseases which usually prevail in a parti- 
cular locality to determine with considerable certainty the ages upon which 
these diseases fall, so it is likewise possible, with the age at death, conjoined 
to those of the living, to estimate the comparative healthfulness of different 
places, and the probable diseases which prevail, and consequent value of 
human life within them. 

It has already been seen, that the relative proportion of persons of a 
given age, to the whole population, diifered very materially in different 
climates, and it has been inferred that the ages at death would correspond- 
ingly differ. This would probably be true if the population was stationary ; 
but as it is affected by migration, the proportions cannot always be 
depended on, as many elements besides mortality conjoin to disturb these 
relations. 

The first prominent feature that arrests the attention in an examination 
of this subject, is the great mortality that prevails among the young. 



184 INFANTILE MORTALITY. 

In all countries, and under all circumstances, in the same country, 
death makes its heaviest demand upon the infantile portion of the popula- 
tion ; but although the demand is always greater upon this age than upon 
any other, yet surrounding circumstances have much to do in rendering it 
comparatively moderate or excessive. 

Between the pure air of the country and the more confined atmos- 
phere of town, or between the healthy portions of town, inhabited by the 
more opulent, and the confined and filthy courts in which the poor congre- 
gate, the differences are wide and startling. 

In regard to this particular period of life, it must be admitted that the 
mortality returns of the census are not what they might be desired, and 
probably very largely fall short of the mortality. A reason for their want 
of accuracy in this report is easily found in the facility with which the 
deaths of young children escape recollection, while those among older 
persons are remembered. Hence, when a record of them is required, it 
might easily happen that those who were competent to furnish information 
were negligent without meaning to be so. 

The larger part of the returns would seem to bear out the inference 
already drawn from the comparative rates of mortality among the young, 
manifested by the Massachusetts returns, and those of Charleston and 
New Orleans. From some, however, a different conclusion might be drawn ; 
and as it has happened in more than one instance that the returns of two 
neighboring States, influenced apparently by the same causes, and subject 
to the same laws, yielded an entirely different result, it has been deemed 
most prudent to leave their guidance entirely, while investigating the facts 
connected with the mortality of infants, and the influence of locality upon 
it, and trust to those more scanty, but more reliable, records which the 
States in a few instances, and the populous cities in many, have placed 
within reach. 



IN TOWN AND COUNTY. 185 

It is true, that these latter returns are confined exclusively to that 
phase of life which developes itself in aggregate numbers, and as the pro- 
portions between city and country mortality are quite at variance with each 
other, the same reasoning cannot be applied to both. The State returns 
are not numerous, and the mortuary records of the census in their applica- 
tion to infantile life are abandoned with greater regret, because they would, 
if reliable, have furnished most important data by which to elucidate the 
laws which regulate the infantile mortality of those rural districts in close 
proximity with the towns which have kept for a series of years bills of 
mortality. 

In some portions of the country this infantile mortality is rather 
increasing than diminishing, and presents figures which are certainly large. 
Mr. Shattuck found that the infantile mortality of Massachusetts had 
increased in four years, from 1757 to 1762, or over 6 per cent., and that 
the deaths of children under one year, amounted to 17.62 per cent, of the 
whole.* 

Dr. Curtis shows that 49.81 per cent, of all those who died in the 
cities of Massachusetts were under ten years while, in rural districts 41.11 
per cent, of the deaths were under ten. " This," he properly remarks, "is 
a high rate to be sustained by persons who have not attained the termina- 
tion of the tenth year of existence, and, so far as we have statistics, speaks 
more unfavorably for the cities than the rest of the State, "f 

In Charleston, the mortality under ten years, is 36.95 per cent., and in 
New Orleans it declines to 33.38 per cent. This would confirm the infer- 
ence that a rigorous climate was unfavorable to the tender age of infancy 
and early youth, and that a warm one was that best suited to their condi- 
tion. Dr. De Sassure and Dawson, however, in presenting a table of the 



* Shattuck'a Letter to Secretary of State of Massachuaette, p. 83. 
f Eighth RegiatratioR Report, p. 116. 

23 



186 FARE ON THE 

deaths which have occuiTcdin Charleston, from 1822 to 1848, complain that 
the proportion of deaths nuder one year has increased from 15.59 to 17.32 
per cent., or about the same as that of Boston. In the succeeding years, and 
especially the last few, the diminution, as compared with Massachusetts, 
was such as to render the whole mortality occurring, under ten years, 4.16 
below that of the. whole State of Massachusetts, and 12.86 per cent, below 
that of Boston. 

From the Charleston mortality, which is inserted, it will be seen that 
the infantile mortality has been subject to great fluctuations, averaging from 
1822 to 1836, 15.59 per cent, falling for the next period, from 1830 to 
1840, to 13.09, and again not only rising to its former standard, but 
surpassing it, and assuming an attitude of 17.32 per cent. 

The proportion of this mortality, between the races, is as follows : 

"White, 

Black, .... 

The average age at death has been considered so good a test for the 
comparative healthfulness of a country, that the States of Massachusetts, 
Kentucky and Rhode Island have taken good care, in tabulating the returns 
made under their respective registration acts, to ascertain and record the 
average age at death with considerable precision. The process of ascer- 
taining the average age at death is simple, and consists in adding up the 
sum of the ages of those who die, and dividing the aggregate among the 
number of deaths. 

This means of determining the relative health of a given population 
has been in use for a long period, and was in fact employed before any enu- 
merations were made of the living. It is liable to very material errors, 
when applied to a population as fluctuating as that of the United States, 
which have been ably pointed out by Mr. Farr : — 



First Period. 


Second Period. 


Third Period. 


9.11 


7.70 


10.82 


21.07 


17.24 


21.64 



AVERAGE AGE AT DEATH. 187 

" Take a street (C) iu a town where, from the erection of new fac- 
tories, or from any new field of labor being thrown open, a considerable 
number of young men and women have been attracted within the last 10 
or 15 years ; there is a demand for the labor of children ; marriages take 
place ; nearly all the young couples have children, two, three, or four in a . 
family. Take another street (D), inhabited by artisans, whose business and 
numbers have remained nearly stationary, and tradespeople who have suc- 
ceeded to old shops established by their fathers ; — suppose the salubrity of 
the two streets, and the rate of mortality at the corresponding ages, the 
same, — it is evident that as the street C contains no old people, and the 
mortality in the first two or three years is always relatively high, the deaths 
registered will be at early ages — the mean age at death low ; while in the 
street D, the deaths will many of them be at old ages, and the mean age at 
death relatively high. If all the inhabitants of the two streets died in one 
year, the mortality would be the same. Yet the mean age at death would 
differ in the same ratio as the mean age of the living. The same results 
would be produced by the death of coze-thirtieth of the inhabitants in each 
street. The cases which have been put will enable us to understand such a 
case as is said to have occurred in Leicester^ where the mean age at death 
was 133 years in the undrained streets, and 231 in the di'aiued streets. That 
the real mortality was higher in the one class of streets than in the other, is 
probable ; but this is not proved by the method, for the undrained streets 
may be new streets, inhabited by young people — a part of the 8,600 in 
46,000 not born in Leicestershire; while the drained streets may be old 
streets inhabited by the old inhabitants of the towns.* On account of the 
system of compensation which it involves, the method of comparing the 
total deaths to the population of the streets gives results nearer the truth ; 



* I find, upon turning to the Census Returns, that the population of aome of the new and old streets in 
Leicester differ in the manner described. 



188 FALLACIES OP THIS METHOD 

but no one acquainted with inquiries of the kind would place much con- 
fidence in any other method, as applied to jyarticular streets or small dis- 
tricts, than that upon which the Life Table is founded — the comparison of 
the numbers living with the numbers born and dying at the several periods 
of life. In the Registrar-G-eneral's Report, the mortality is only given for 
statistical districts of an average population of 50,000. 

" The mean age at death in the districts of the metropolis furnishes a 
series of very striking illustrations of the errors of the method : according 
to which Oreeniuicli is the healthiest district in the metropolis ; and would 
be placed first in a table of salubrity, as the mean age at death is 36 years 
in Greenwich, and only 31 in Hackney, 31 in St. George, Hanover-square. 
This result is produced by the accumulation of old men in Greenwich Hos- 
pital,* who, of course, die at advanced ages, and make the mean age at 
death high. Supposing the mortality among the old veterans to be the 
same as the mortality of the general population, it is evident that the living 
at 60-70-80, &c., would be increased as much as the dying, and that the 
method of comparing the deaths with the living would give true results. 
-Riotherhithe, according to the same method, is healthier than Islington, 
Marylebone, and Pancras : in Whitechapel the mean age at death is 26 
years ; it is placed therefore higher than St. James's district, comprising the 
lower end of Regent-street, and higher than the wealthy City of London, in 
in which the mean age at death is only 25 years ; an effect to be ascribed 
partly to the City of London workhouse for old people at Peckham, which 
is also one of the causes why the mean age at death is 25 years in the city, 
and 34 years in Cambenvell. The 'mean age at death' is 21 years in St. 
Saviour, and 30 in St. Olave. That these results are absurd must be evident 
to all who are acquainted with the subject." f 

* The deaths of 291 pensioners -were registered in 1841 ; the total deaths in the Greenwich District were 
2198. 

f 6th Registrar-General's Keport, p. o'ZS. 



ILLUSTRATED. 189 

There is probably no country to which these remarks are more appli- 
cable than to the United States. It is asserted by Mr. Farr that the popula- 
tion in England is so much affected by migration as seriously to interfere 
with the results of the average age at death, or the mean age at death, 
which is but another form for expressing the same idea. But the fluctu- 
ations of population in England are trivial, when compared to those that 
take place in the United States. Not only is the amount of immigration 
largely in advance of that of any other country, whose statistics of popula- 
tion are known, but the changes of the native inhabitants from place to 
place are much greater than those of any other people. 

The restless and indomitable spirit which is characteristic of the Ame- 
rican nation, and induces them to court hazard or risk, either of life or 
property, apparently for the sake of overcoming it, has entirely absorbed all 
great attachment for place or love of home. The associations which 
gather around this sacred spot, and endear it to the hearts of the people of 
most nations, is one of slight tenure in the breast of an American. It is 
true that among the aged, who have spent a long life upon their quiet acres, 
in the deep bosom of the country, this feeling is still extant, and occasion- 
ally one of their more adventurous offspring, who has gone forth in the 
busy world, and is involved in its cares and perplexities, turns a lingering 
look towards the old homestead, where his quietest and happiest hours have 
been passed ; but this feeling is but momentary, and is chased away the next 
instant by some one of the many schemes that take possession of his restless 
mind. 

Occasionally one, in whose breast the recollection of home is more vivid 
than is usually the case, returns to his native acres and strives to find happi- 
ness in maturer years in the contemplation of the scenes of his youth ; but 
it usually happens that the glad spirit which enlivened that period, and 
beautified every running brook or shady glen, with a coloring of itsx)wn, has 



190 AVERAGE AGE AT DEATH 

fled, and in place of the blithesome boy, the care-worn man gazes upon the 
scenes which once inspired the most delightful emotions with a listless eye 
and languid look, and wonders how his youthful fancy could have been 
taken captive by the scenes upon which he now coldly looks, with but little 
pleasure and much pain. A visit like this too frequently dispels the gay 
illusion which the man of the world amid his many cares had created for 
himself, and he returns to the world a wiser but also a sadder man ; and if 
he changes his place of residence, it is to some one further removed than 
ever from that of his youth, where the associations which he forms are 
those of the moment. 

The great uncertainty of this rule, when applied to such a population 
as that of the United States, is still fm'ther illustrated by a comparison of 
the average age at death, in the States of Massachusetts and Kentucky. In 
the former, for a period of five years, ending January 1st, 1854, 92,174 
deaths are recorded, whose average age was 26.93 years. In the latter 
State the recorded deaths, in 1852, amounted to 12,058, with an average 
age of 20.55 years for the white population, and 17.59 for the colored. 
During the year 1853, 9,105 occurred, the average ages of which were 
20.76 years for the whites, and 18.34 for the colored deaths. Thus — 



Massachusetts, for five years, 


average 


age 


at death, . 


. 26.93 years 


Kentucky, for 1852, white, 


(( 


a 


a 


. 20.55 « 


" " black, 


(( 


it 


(( 


. 17.59 " 


" for 1853, white, 


(( 


a 


ii 


. 20.76 " 


" " black, 


u 


a 


a 


. 18.34 " 



These facts establish pretty clearly the proposition, that the more 
youthful a country or population is, the less will be its average age at 
death, provided the proportion of females assimilates pretty nearly to that 
of the males, as it is the presence and death of the infantile part of the 
population that reduces the average age at death. In California, where the 



IN NORTHERN AND SOUTHERN LATITUDES. 191 

female portion of the population is greatly in the minority, a high average 
age at death might be expected ; whereas in Indiana, Iowa or Kentucky, it 
would probably be low, for it is to be taken for granted that in each of the 
new States the proportion of children to the number of females of a mar- 
riageable age is greater than in the older ones. 

It will be seen that those populations in the old world and in the new, 
that remain in the most perfect state of repose, losing perhaps their younger 
members by emigration, but receiving none of the same age in return, 
exhibit the highest average age at death. This is evidenced by Geneva, in 
Switzerland, and Concord, in New Hampshire, both of whose populations 
are remarkably .stationary. Plympton, in Massachusetts, is another evidence 
of the effect of an aged and stationary population upon the average age at 
death. 

" The whole number of deaths in Plymptom, during thirty years, from 
January, 1812, to January, 1842, was 218 males, 226 females; total, 443. 
The average age of all the deceased persons, was 40 years, 10 months, and 
25 15-24 days. The average age of the males was 39 years, 9 months, and 
9 20-24 days. The average age of the females, was 41 years, 11 months, 
and 28 8-24 days. There were probably as many people in Plympton, at 
the commencement of the war of the revolution, as there are now, z.e., 861."* 

These illustrations show that the same causes which produce a low 
average age, either of the living or the dead, operate alike in both hemis- 
pheres, and are the peculiar incidents of American life. That a large per- 
centage of infantile mortality will not only depress the average age at 
death, but also that of the living, is readily admitted ; but this is not the only 
cause competent to produce this result, nor is it always a manifestation of 
the unhealthiness of a place, and certainly none of its want of prosperity, 
as is made manifest by a comparison of some quiet town in New England, 
and an active town in the New States. 

* Report of Town Clerk. 



192 



AVERAGE AGE AT DEATH 



The annexed table exhibits the average at death in Boston, New York, 
Philadelphia and Charleston, four cities in different degrees of latitude, 
situated upon the Atlantic seaboard, and of an age corresponding tolerably 
well with each other : — 







Ail 


Ages. 


Under 


20. 


OVEK 20. 




/ 


Average 




Average 




Average 


Place and '. 


Period. 


Number. 


Age. 


Number. 


Age. 


Number. 


-Age. 


Charleston, 
1822 to 1830, 


) Whites, 


3,447 


32.63 


963 


4.62 


2,484 


43.55 


>■ Blacks, 


4,076 


28.66 


1,950 


3.93 


2,126 


51.33 


j Both, 


7,523 


30.59 


2,913 


4.16 


4,610 


47.28 




) Whites, 


3,366 


32.65 


866 


5.14 


2,500 


43.26 


1831 to 1840, 


V Blacks, 


■4,297 


30,74 


1,957 


4.70 


2,340 


48.24 




) Both, 


7,663 


31.05 


2,823 


4.88 


4,840 


45.11 




) Whites, 


1,866 


33.41 


614 


3.68 


1,272 


47.74 


1841 to 1848, 


} Blacks, 


2,847 


28.35 


1,416 


3.90 


•1,431 


52.56 




) Both, 


4,733 


30.39 


2,030 


3.83 


2,703 


50.29 


Boston, 
















1821 to 1830, 


Both, 


10,731 


25.88 


4,913 


3.38 


5,817 


44.88 


1831 to 1840, 


a 


16,314 


22.72 


8,565 


3.33 


7,749 


44.15 


1841 to 1845, 


(( 


10,422 


21.43 


6,875 


3.31 


4,547 


44.86 


New York, 
















1821 to 1830, 


u 


42,817 


24.36 


20,018 


3.15 


22,709 


43.14 


1831 to 1840, 


« 


74,819 


19.46 


40,728 


2.95 


34,091 


39.18 


1841 to 1843, 


(t 


29,939 


19.69 


14,127 


2.86 


10,812 


41.68 


Philadelphia, 
















1821 to 1830, 


a 


36,614 


25.53 


17,794 


3.22 


19,820 


45.57 


1831 to 1840, 


u 


49,678 


22.64 


26,812 


2.91 


22,866 


45.78 


1841 to 1844, 


(( 


21,356 


22.01 


12,088 


3.02 


9,268 


46.79 



An examination of this table leaves no room to doubt that New York 
and Philadelphia were depressed to this low standard, by the great mortality 
which prevailed in each among the infantile portion of the population. It 
has already been seen that the infantile period of life was more kindly dealt 
with in the warm climate of the southern States, and it might reasonably be 
anticipated that in proportion to the number of inhabitants living of that 
age, the deaths would be fewer at the south than at the north. 



GENERAL OBSERVATIONS. 193 



CHAPTER XVI. 



GENERAL OBSERTATIONS. 



An attempt has been made in the preceding pages to take a compre- 
hensive survey of the vital condition of the population of the whole Union, 
and, so far as the facts permitted, to pourtray and classify the peculiarities 
of each section. The materials used in the prosecution of this undertaking, 
were not all that might be desired, but such as actually existed, and could 
be commanded. In many instances they have been sufficient not only to 
lead to suggestions, but also to substantiate them ; in others, they have 
only served the purpose of exciting the mind to the adoption of an infer- 
ence, without supplying the materials necessary to prosecute it to a final 
conclusion. 

Some of the most apparently important deductions, drawn from scanty 
and insufficient data, are in this position, and await the accumulation of a 
sufficient number of facts to prove their correctness, or show their improba- 
bility. In no part of the country has the registration of births, deaths and 
marriages been conducted with sufficient care, and arranged with sufficient 
precision, to ensure such results as might be desired, with the single 
exception of the State of Massachusetts, whose labors in this department 
of enquiry are above all praise. 
24 



194 EFFECT OF LOCALITY 

Climate and latitude are seen to exercise an influence in the production 
of particular diseases, and in the relative number of deaths at particular 
ages, too evident not to be admitted, and too important to be overlooked. 
" The influence of climate," says Dr. Johnson, in his work on Italian 
climate, "not only on the complexion, but on the features and the whole 
organization of man, as well as of animals and vegetables, is now unques- 
tioned. The inhabitants of Italy, notwithstanding the unlimited admixture 
of Gothic, Grecian, African and Asiatic blood, are almost as uniformily natu- 
ralized in respect to color, features, and even moral character, as the inha- 
bitants of Spain, Greece, Egypt, Hindostan, or China. It is impossible to 
attribute this natural stamp, or impress entirely^ or even principally to race 
or hereditary descent, in any country, and least of all in Italy, which, from 
the circumstance of its universal domination at one time, and complete 
subjugation at another, became an immense human menagerie, where 
specimens, nay, colonies of every people on the face of the earth, were 
commixed and blended together ad infinitum. Climate, then, assisted by 
some other physical causes, and many of a moral nature, has effected as 
homogeneous a people, mental and corporeal, in Italy, as in most other 
countries."* 

Dr. Armstrong, Deputy-Inspector of Hospitals and Fleets, in the Eng- 
lish service, says: "So powerful are the eff"ects of external circumstances, 
that some of the most striking changes have been produced in the human 
constitution in the course of a few generations, and become permanent. In 
the West India Islands the white race, descended from the earlier European 
settlers, as well as those brought from England, in early life, are tall and 
well proportioned, with great freedom in the joints. In general, however, 
the chest is less capacious, and the muscles less strongly marked. Pecu- 

Johnson on Change of Air, p. 225. 



UPON MOKTALITY. 195 

liarities are also observed in the greater prominence of the bones of the 
cheeks and depth of the orbits ; the complexion is paler, and the skin cooler. 
In New South Wales, the descendants of the first settlers exhibit the same 
peculiarities, although in a less degree. 

" The influence of warm climates is apparent after a few years' residence 
within the tropics. Europeans lose their sanguineous complexions and ac- 
quire the povv^er of resisting heat better than the new comer. This power 
of accommodation to circumstances arises from a corresponding change in 
the functions of life, and which is usually attributed to the individual having 
undergone the process of seasoning, a process of which the most vague 
opinions seem to be entertained. Even within the limited extent of our 
own country (England) we observe the influence of local situation on 
comparing the natives of mountainous districts with those of the low 
country."* 

It is stated by Sir James McGregor, Director General of the Army 
Medical Board, that so great is the influence of climate and surrounding 
circumstances upon the physical character of the human race, that a corps 
levied from the agricultural districts of Wales, or the northern counties of 
England, will last much longer and endure more hardship than one pro- 
cured from the materials which abound in the manufacturing towns, as 
Birmingham and Manchester. The effect upon the pliysiqite by residence 
in manufacturing towns is particularly striking. Thus, out of 613 men 
enlisted in Birmingham and its neighborhood, but 238 were approved as 
fit for service. This permanent deterioration is still further illustrated by 
the disqualification for those posts requiring a certain standard of size and 
strength, produced by long residence in the more crowded parts of London. 
It is said, that of the men from Spitalfields, and other crowded districts in 

* Armstrong on Climate, p. 8. 



196 EFFECT OF LOCALITY 

London, who apply for situations in the police force, two out of three are 
rejected, as physically unfit. In further illustration of this point, " it is 
observed, that in some of the worst conditioned of the town districts, that 
the positive number of natives of the aboriginal stock continually diminishes, 
and that the vacancy, as well as the increase, is made up by emigration from 
healthier districts."* 

In regard to the influence of climate in our own country, Dr. Prichard 
remarks : — " The tall, lank, gaunt, and otherwise remarkable figures of the 
Virginians, and men of Carolina, are strikingly different from the short, 
plump, round-faced farmers of the midland counties in England. The race 
is originally the same, and the deviation in it must be attributed to the in- 
fluence of the circumstances, whatever they may be, which are connected 
with local situation, "f 

All of these authorities, which might be greatly multiplied, are empha- 
tic in their testimony as to the influence of climate over the human organi- 
zation in a state of health, predisposing it to disease under certain defined 
circumstances, and preserving it from them under others. The facts col- 
lected in the preceding pages demonstrate the extent of this influence in 
the wide range of latitude and climate embraced within the limits of the 
United States, " which is," says Maltebrun, " so inconstant and variable, 
that it passes rapidly from the frosts of Norway to the scorching heats of 
Africa, and from the humidity of Holland to the drought of Castile." 

The effect of climate is greatly modified by long residence, by which 
means the system undergoes a change fiting it to withstand the deleterious 
influences that surround it. This process is termed acclimation, and is espe- 
cially marked in its effect upon the constitution of those who change their 



* Report of Poor Law CommissioDer, 1842. 
f Researches into the Physical History of Man, by James Cowles Prichard, vol. 2, p. 563. 



UPON MORTALITY. 197 

residence from a cold to a warm latitude. " Habit," remarks Dr. La 
Roche, " seems to possess the power of modifying the system to so great 
an extent, and so permanent a degree, as to justify those who hold it in the 
light of a second nature. In virtue of the influence it exercises, and the 
peculiar organic changes resulting from long exposure to the sensible and 
insensible qualities of the atmosphere, or to the extraneous materials by 
which the atmosphere may be contaminated, man enjoys the faculty to 
which I have alluded, of living under climatic influences of the most diver- 
sified characters. He resists the inclemencies of the elements, the insalu- 
brity of the seasons, the extremes of temperature, as well as the action of 
malarial and other exhalations. With time, the native of the north acquires 
the privilege of supporting with impunity the scorching rays of a tropical 
sun, though the result is not obtained without inconvenience, suffering, and 
even danger, and without, in the greater number of instances, subjecting 
the individual to the ordeal of disease. Not so easy is it to become habitu- 
ated to the baneful action of those modifiers — such as malarial exhalations — 
which exercise their agency on the principles of vitality.* 

Those who are born in the neighborhood of marshes, are less affected 
by the miasm arising from them, than new comers, who are almost certain 
to be attacked by malarial diseases. The American bottom, which is situ- 
ated in Illinois, contiguous to the Mississippi river, and extends backs to the 
bluffs, some few miles inland, presents one of the most extensive marshy 
districts in the United States. The inhabitants of this fertile but miasmatic 
district, although possessed of a yellow and sallow hue, acquire the power 
of resisting the miasmatic influence that constantly environs them to a cer- 
tain extent, while an exposure for a single night to those unaccustomed to 
the miasm is almost certain to be followed by an attack of fever. It is so 

* La Roche on Yellow Fever, vol. 2, p. 20. 



198 ACCLIMATION TO 

customary for strangers visiting the more southern parts of the valley of the 
Mississippi to be attacked by fever, that Dr. Fenner says, " the term accli- 
mation is perfectly well known to all the inhabitants of the lower valley, and 
indicates that persons coming from a northern climate and settling there, 
are very liable to have attacks of fever during the first two or three years 
of their residence, but afterwards become quite exempt." * ■ 

Drs. Nott, Dickson, and many other southern medical men who are in 
the habit of observing the effect of long-continued residence in malarial 
districts, are of the opinion that the system is rather predisposed to an 
attack of autumnal fever, by having previously suifered rather than pro- 
tected by its occurrence. In the malarial districts of Maryland, the writer 
has had occasion to observe frequent attacks in the same individual, and 
has known one instance in which a gentleman has suffered from sixteen 
attacks of remittent fever in seventeen consecutive seasons. 

These observations, although applicable with greater force to southern 
than northern latitudes, are nevertheless general in their application, and ex- 
tend to all varieties of climate and many modifications of disease. The 
same laws which modify the temperature, arrange the constituents of the 
soil, and bestow upon the inanimate objects of creation their peculiar 
and marked characteristics, also exercise their control over the human 
system, bestowing upon it peculiarity of color, shape, and powers of en- 
durance, and so modify it as to fit it for the particular situation in which it 
is placed. 

The most fatal disease, however, to those who are unacclimated, is yel- 
low fever, which prevails within the tropics and in the southern cities of the 
United States. Dr. Barton, in his excellent report on the yellow fever, as it 
occurred in New Orleans, has a table showing " the life cost of acclimation; 

1 * Fenner's Southern Medical Reports, p. 32. 



YELLOW FEVER. 



199 



or liabilities to yellow fever from nativity, as exhibited by the epidemic of 
1853 :"— 



Nativities — State and Country. 

New Orleans, 

State of Louisiana, .... 

Arkansas, Mississippi, Alabama, Georgia, 
Soutli Carolina, .... 

North Carolina, Virginia, Maryland, Ten- 
nessee, Kentucky, .... 

New York, Vermont, Massachusetts, Maine, 
Khode Island, Connecticut, New Jersey, 
Pennsylvania, Delaware, 

Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Missouri, 

British America, 

Totals, 

"West Indies, South America, Mexico, . 

Great Britain, 

Ireland, . • . ' . 

Denmark, Sweden, Russia, 

Prussia, Germany, . . ... 

Holland, Belgium, .... 

Austria, Switzerland, .... 

France, ...... 

Spain, Italy, 

Totals 



Estimated 

population 

in 1853. 


Estimated 

mortality 

from Fever. 


Ratio per 100 

of the 

Population. 


46,004 


(140 
\ 25 


3.58 


I 3,176 


42 


13.22 


■ 4,984 


153 


30.09 


[ 10,751 


353 


32.83 


J 

2,030 


92 


44.23 


381 


20 

825 


50.24 


66,946 


12.32 


1,790 


11 


6.14 


4,598 


240 


52.19 


26,611 


3,569 


204.97 


588 


96 


163.26 


17,718 


2,339 


132.01 


152 


50 


328.94 


797 


176 


220.08 


. 9,967 


480 


48.13 


2,217 


61 
7,011 


22.06 


62,448 


111.91 



It is supposed by many that a continued residence in a city where 
yellow fever is of frequent occurrence, as in Charleston, Savannah, Mobile, 
or New Orleans, furnishes an entire immunity against its attack. It is 
extremely doubtful, however, whether any permanent immunity can be 
obtained which is not based upon an absolute attack of the disease. Dr. 
Stone, of Charity Hospital, New Orleans, whose experience in yellow fever is 



200 DR. BARTON ON 

large, is clearly of ttie opinion that the disease must be once taken in order 
to afford future protection. In a large practice, he has known no one to 
escape, although he has frequently observed attacks in young children, and 
even infants, so slight as scarcely to attract the notice of their nurses or 
parents. Dr. Barton asserts, " that perfect acclimation is only to he derived 
from once having had the diseased " One of the most extraordinary 
features of this epidemic," remarks Dr. Fenner, in speaking of the scourge 
of yellow fever, in 1853, "is presented in the fact, that the natives of the 
city, both white and colored, have suffered severely, and many of them have 
died." The same was observed at Charleston, Savannah and Mobile, as well 
as those towns on the Mississippi river which were visited by the disease. 
Nor is the immunity extended to those rural districts where it does not 
prevail. Dr. Dowler, in speaking of the disease as it prevails at Charleston, 
says : " Those who live in the higher parts of the State, at a distance of 
two or three hundred miles, and who come to Charleston during the four 
months in which the yellow fever commonly prevails, are as liable to be 
attacked by it as strangers; and, therefore, all intercourse between the 
country and city is suspended for one-third of the year, excepting that of a 
few white persons, who, from necessity, go to the latter, always taking care, 
however, not to sleep there." 

The table already introduced, showing the relative mortality in New 
Orleans, in each 1,000, of the inhabitants of different countries, and dif- 
ferent sections of this country, exhibits in a very remarkable manner the 
influence exerted by long residence in a warm climate. Thus among the 
strangers from the northern portions of the United States, a larger number 
were attacked than among those from the lower latitudes of Kentucky, Vii-- 
ginia, Tennessee, and North Carolina ; and of these latter, a much larger 
number than from the still lower latitudes of South Carolina, Alabama, 
Georgia, and Mississippi. The proportions being : 




MOETALITY IN YELLOW l''EVER. 201 

From Northern latitudes, . . . 32.83 per 1,000 
" Middle " ... 30.69 

" Southern " ... 13.22 

In regard to European residents, the same preference for subjects from 
northern latitudes obtained. While those from Austria, Russia, and Great 
Britain suffered severely, those from France were less subject to attack, and 
those from Spain and Italy still less. From this it would appear that a long- 
continued I'esidence in warm latitudes, even when freed from the causes that 
produce yellow fever, effects such a modification in the constitution, as to 
serve in some degree to ward off an attack, and that an eminent predispo- 
sition is found in that condition of body, induced by a long residence in a 
high latitude. That the chances of escape from an attack of yellow fever, 
when exposed to its influence, by a native of South Carolina or Virginia, 
are greater than those of a native of Ohio, New York, or the New England 
States, under like circumstances, appears to be tolerably well established. 
Did the opportunity exist for obtaining similar information in regard to the 
diseases which prevail in northern latitudes, in the more inclement season 
of the year, it would probably be found that the natives of warm latitudes 
suffered much more in the process of acclimation than is generally supposed, 
and that modifications of habit, equally important with those already 
noticed, are necessary, in order to enable the southern resident to with- 
stand the depressing effects of cold. 

That these alternations of temperature exert a powerful influence over 
the human organization, and that a continued residence either amid the 
snows of the frigid zone, or the burning heat of the equatorial region, pro- 
duces such modifications as to render a sudden transition from the one to 
the other a matter of extreme hazard, cannot be questioned. Not only the 
facts set forth in the preceding pages, but the concurrent testimony of 
25 



202 INFLUENCE OF 

nearly all accurate observers, goes to show, that independent of all local 
circumstances, the heat of low latitudes is sufficient to induce a train of 
affections peculiar to and dependent on a warm climate, while cold, on the 
contrary, is attended with those peculiar to northern regions. 

" Fever, dysentery, liver disease in some shape, with every variety of 
bowel affections, may be regarded as the diseases of hot climates. Cold, on 
the other hand, when inordinate or sudden, arrests the subcutaneous circu- 
lation, retards secretion and colorification, and drives the blood from the 
skin, which becomes rough to the interior, where it circulates sluggishly and 
in large quantities. The natural effect of this derangement of these im- 
portant functions is to induce inflammatory or sub-inflammatory affections, 
especially of those parts which are most engorged. Hence, inflammation of 
the mucous membrane of the air-passages — cough and bronchitis — -are espe- 
cially Induced by sudden or extreme cold."* An examination of the causes 
of death in different latitudes, as developed in this report, will demonstrate 
how generally affections of one or the other of these classes are amenable to 
the influence of elevated and depressed temperature, and how important a 
feature they constitute in the medical history of the country. In England 
the winter months are invariably the most fatal, Avhile in the United 
States they are usually among the most healthy. In regard to the effect 
upon aged persons, the winter of England and that of the United States 
presents a fair parallel. 

A remarkable instance of the eflfect of long-continued cold upon the 
human system is found in the case of Dr. Kane and his companions in their 
recent search in the Polar regions for the ill-fated expedition of Sir John 
Franklin. Upon the return of Dr. Kane and his party from their residence 
of three years in a high northern latitude, they found that the efi'ect of 
summer heat in a northern climate was so depressing as to produce extreme 



* Dnnglison's Human ITeaUh, p. 27. 



COLD AND WARM CLIMATES. 203 

nervous prostration, and unfit tliem for mental or corporeal exertion. In 
the case of Dr. Kane, this nervous prostration was so great, as absolutely to 
destroy all power of physical endurance, and finally resulted in his death. 

The effect of age is important. In those affections which are depend- 
ent upon an increased excitability of the system, as in all the diseases in- 
duced by warm climates, the middle period of life is that in which they 
prove most fatal ; while those diseases which are induced by a diminution 
of this excitability, as in the case of those due exclusively to a cold climate, 
old age, or an impaired vitality, are least favorable to recovery. 

The effect of this diversity of climate and surroundins: circumstances 
upon the relative prevalence of the one or the other of the diseases to which 
each are subject, and the comparative duration of life, has been fully recog- 
nised by those whose duty it is to apply the laws of mortality, either 
known or supposed, to the operations of life assurance. Experience has de- 
monstrated to those companies having risks in different countries or in 
different climates in the same country, that the percentage of mortality, 
under apparently like circumstances, is greater in some situations than in 
others, and that what might be a profitable rate in one would be a 
losing rate in the other. 

The annexed table, showing the combined results of the operations of 
the order of Odd Fellows in the United States, for ten years, commencing 
with 1843, and ending with 1852, is highly pertinent to this subject, and 
illustrates, in the most marked manner, the influence of locality upon health 
and disease. This table derives additional value from the circumstance 
that the Odd Fellows were for the most part like those who seek assurance 
in the middle period of life : — 



204 



STATISTICS OF MORTALITY 



State Grand Lodges. 


Beneficial 

M embers. 


Number 
Sick. 


Ratio 
Sick. 


Nnmber 
Deaths. 


One death 
to each 


Maryland, 


59,131 


13,021 


4.5 


641 


92 


Massachusetts, 


78,^11 


9,892 


7.9 


659 


11,9 


S. New York, 


16],T42 


28,818 


5.6 


1,733 


93 


N. ITew York, . 


93,142 


14,662 


6.3 


653 


142 


Pennsylvania, 


204,689 


37,150 


6.5 


1,829 


111 


District Columbia, 


10,398 


2,458 


5.2 


77 


135 


Delaware, 


7,800 


1,016 


7.3 


61 


127 


Ohio, 


59,673 


9,973 


5.9 


639 


93 


Louisiana, 


9,924 


1,110 


8.6 


211 


47 


JSTew Jersey, 


42,671 


6,989 


6.1 


322 


132 


Kentucky, 


17,561 


2,197 


7.9 


243 


72 


Virginia, 


31,048 


4,824 


6.4 


336 


92 


Indiana, 


17,981 


2,682 


6.9 


203 


88 


Mississippi, . 


8,266 


816 


10.1 


89 


92 


Missouri, 


10,988 


1,446 


7.6 


187 


58 


Illinois, 


14,839 


1,613 


8.3 


162 


88 


Texas, 


1,340 


139 


8.2 


34 


39 


Alabama, 


7,469 


725 


10.3 


119 


63 


Connecticut, . 


37,713 


5,843 


6.4 


273 


138 


South Carolina, 


13,812 


1,518 


9.0 


128 


107 


Tennessee, 


11,918 


860 


13.3 


93 


128 


Georgia, 


11,768 


1,403 


8.3 


134 


87 


Worth Carolina, . 


6,710 


645 


9.8 


59 


113 


Maine, 


33,138 


3,543 


9.3 


271 


122 


Ehode Island, 


9,621 


1,537 


6.2 


78 


123 


New Hampshire, . 


14,454 


1,812 


7.9 


120 


120 


Michigan, 


14,341 


2,077 


6.9 


111 


129 


Wisconsin, . 


9,099 


625 


11.8 


58 


156 


Yermont, 


4,785 


490 


8.2 


27 


177 


Iowa, 


4,380 


425 


7.9 


36 


121 



1,008,612 160,209 6.3 9,586 105 

This table would have derived an additional value if it had contained 
the ages at death, and the occupations of the deceased. This latter enquiry, 



AMONG ODD FELLOWS. " 205 

whose importance is of the highest value in measuring the relative duration 
of life, has latterly received much attention at home and abroad. It unfor- 
tunately happens, however, that the European observations are mainly 
confined to England and Scotland, and those in this country to the States 
of Massachusetts and Rhode Island. 

Mr. Nelson, the Actuary of the Medical Invalid and General Life Office, 
at London, obtained, after much labor, the results of a sufficient number of 
Friendly Societies, whose province is to provide for the sick, to enable him 
to institute a comparison into the relative health of the various occupations 
included in the returns, and the comparative healthfulness of each in town 
and country districts. This enables a comparison to be made between the 
returns of the occupations, as found in the Massachusetts reports, and those 
of similar occupations in England. It is much to be regretted that no 
extensive means of comparison with the records of Massachusetts, is to be 
found at home, the only State which has noted the occupations of the 
deceased being the neighboring one of Rhode Island, and the whole 
number of occupations so noted being confined to less than two hundred 
deaths. 

The results of Mr. Nelson's investigations disclosed the fact, that not- 
w:ithstanding the circumstances which at the first view might be supposed 
to exercise a very large influence in abridging life, the members of Friendly 
Societies were longer lived than the average residents of the same districts 
of similar ages, although a large number of these latter were among the 
affluent classes of society, who from their greater comforts and limited 
exposure, were supposed to present a higher average age at death than 
their more humble neighbors. 

The data collected from the Friendly Societies was carefully arranged 
in three classes, dependent upon the residence of the members, viz., town, 
city and country, in order to test the effect of locality upon the life of 



206 . STATISTICS OF MORTALITY 

persons pursuing-j^the same occupation under the different circumstances of 
town and country life. These were grouped together, and a table of the 
expectation of life, formed from the results, and contrasted with the expec- 
tation of life among the males in England and Wales for the same periods. 
This table, which is given below, shows that at each age the expectation of 
life is invariably in favor of the members of the Friendly Societies, and 
speaks in very encouraging language to those whose province it is to toil at 
laborious and frequently dangerous occupations : — 







Expectation 


IN 


Difference in Favor of the Three Districts. 


Age. 


Thi 


:'ee Districts. 


England and Wales. 


In Years. 




Per Cent. 


20 




43.77 




40.69 


3.08 




7.57 


30 ' 




36.60 




34.09 


2.50 




7.34 


,40 




29.33 




27.47 


1.85 




6.75 


50 • 




22.19 




20.84 


1.34 




6.45 


60 




15.69 




14.58 


1.10 




7.60 


70 




10.20 




9.21 


0.98 




10.72 



These results, so far showing that the circumstances in which the 
laborious classes are placed limit their duration of life, absolutely 
exhibits a prolongation of it beyond what the most favorable life tables, 
selected from the best classes of society, have ventured to go, and excited 
much surprise among those who were by no means ignorant on this 
subject. 

But although the average was more favorable to life than that of the 
whole population, yet a large difference was found to obtain in the relative 
healthfulness of different occupations, as will be made manifest by the 
following table: — 



AMONG MEMBERS OF FRIENDLY SOCIETIES. 



iges. 


Rural, Town, 

and City Districts. 

G. 


Clerks. 
J, No. 2. 


Plumbers, 

Painters, and 

Glaziers. 

J, No. 3. 


Bakers. 
J, No. 4. 


Miners. 
J, No. 5. 


20 


43.T7 


31.83 


36.90 


40.02 


40.67 


30 


36.60 


27.57 


30.50 


32.35 


33.15 


40 


29.33 


21.85 


24.30 


24.47 


24.92 


50 


22,19 


16.04 


17.09 


19.09 


17.53 


60 


15.69 


12.42 


12.16 


14.06 


11.85 



From this it appears that the expectation of life at twenty years for 
all trades included in the Friendly Societies, is 43.77 years; for miners 
alone, 40.67 years; for bakers, 40 years; for painters, plumbers and glaziers, 
36.90 years ; and for clerks, the low average of 31.83 years. 

" The very remarkable difference," adds Mr. Neison, " between the 
above employments and the general results, cannot fail to occasion some 
surprise ; and at the same time conclusively prove, that any district con- 
taining a majority of the above, or other equally unhealthy employments, 
must show a very reduced average value of life for the district, independent 
of the local situation itself on health."* 

The Massachusetts returns not only embrace those usually included 
in Friendly Societies abroad or at home, but also those on the one hand 
in the latter classes whose means are abundant and exposure little ; and on 
the other, who derive their sustenance from the hand of charity. 

The following table exhibits the most common occupations of those 
who have died in Massachusetts during eleven years and eight months, 
ending on the last day of December, 1854, together with the average age 
that has been attained by the deceased, in each of the selected occupa- 
tions : — 

Jouinal London Statistical Society, vol. 8, p. 313. 



208 



RATIO OF MORTALITY IN 



So. 




9698 


Agriculturists, 


29 


Artists, 


11 


Bank Officers, 


688 


Blacksmiths, 


124 


Butchers, 


198 


Cabinetmakers, . 


1498 


Carpenters, 


234 


Clergymen, . 


437 


Clerks, . 


286 


Coopers, 


263 


Gentlemen, 


21 


Glass Blowers, 


111 


Hatters, 


7 


Judges and Justices, 


92 


Jewelers, 


6410 


Laborers, 


171 


Lawyers, 


363 


Machinists, 


313 

II r 


Manufacturers, 



Age. 
47.16 
40.10 
61.72 
51.41 
49,63 
47.04 
49.33 
56.61 
33.73 
68.84 
63.83 
39.86 
54.90 
67.19 
42.56 
44.67 
56.60 
37.63 
44.30 



No. 




Age. 


359 


Masons, . 


41.61 


408 


Mechanics, . 


42.88 


816 


Merchants, 


62.06 


69 


Millers, 


61.68 


50 


Musicians, 


40.46 


260 


Operatives, . 


34.19 


368 


Painters, 


42.10 


366 


Paupers, 


65.19 


322 


Physicians, 


66.25 


129 


Printers, 


36.66 


80 


Eopemakers, . 


55.95 


2299 


Seamen, 


45.99 


238 


Shipwrights, . 


66.48 


2436 


Shoemakers, 


43.66 


194 


Stonecutters, . 


43.66 


287 


Tailors, 


42.61 


175 


Tanners and Curriers, 


47.37 


648 


Traders, 


46.63 


95 


Weavers, 


46,83 



" Of tliese 33,580 individuals the combined ages amounted to 1,724,031 
years, or 51.34 years to each man. 

" A portion of the females who died during the same time, admit of the 
following classification : — 



Domestics, 

Dressmakers, 

Housekeepers, 

Milliners, 

Nurses, 

Operatives, 



43.96 
32.36 
51.16 
35.53 
54.61 
27.69 



Seamstresses, 
Shoebinders, . 
Straw-braiders, 
Tailoresses, 
Teachers, . 



41.83 
45.69 
36.09 
40,63 
28.70 



" The aggregate ages of the 2,376 females thus given, amounted to 
109,724, and the general average of the whole gives 50.39 years to each 
individual. 



DIFFERENT OCCUPATIONS. 



209 



The Registrar of the city of Boston has furnished the following table 
of ages of 706 men, of the principal professions and trades, who died in 
1855, and whose ages were reported : — 



No. 


Profession or Occupation. 


305 


Laborers, 


69 


Manners, 


45 


Clerks, 


35 


Tailors, 


32 


Merchants, . 


32 


Traders, . 


S3 


Carpenters, . 


22 


Painters, . 


20 


Shoemakers, 


15 


Teamsters, 


12 


Gentlemen, 


11 


Printers, . 


10 


Masons, 


9 


Machinists, 


8 


Bakers, 


8 


Farmers, 


7 


Blacksmiths, 


6 


Ship Carpenters, 


6 


Physicians, 


5 


Clergymen, 


4 


Coopers, 


4 


Curriers, . 


4 


Engineers, . 


6 


Lawjers, 


^06 


Totals, . 



Ages Ranging 
from 


Aggregate 
Ages. 


Average 

Ages. 


16 to 88 


12,292 


40.30 


16 " 79 


2,663 


38.59 


16 " 74 


1,484 


32.98 


20 « 90 


1,368 


39.08 


26 « 91 


1,882 


58.81 


24 " 79 


1,590 


49.68 


18 " 87 


1,510 


45.76 


19 « 76 


888 


40.36 


21 " 55 


687 


34.35 


22 " 73 


616 


34.40 


28 " 83 


718 


69.83 


20 " 68 


434 


39.45 


25 " 71 


402 


40.20 


23 " 46 


304 


33.77 


26 « 60 


309 


38.62 


35 « 71 


457 


67.12 


20 " 58 


245 


35.00 


30 " 70 


307 


51,16 


25 " 72 


249 


49.80 


36 " 73 


269 


63.80 


26 " 55 


162 


40.50 


19 " 40 


114 


28.50 


27 " 54 


183 


45.75 


27 " 91 


301 


60.20 



29,334 



41.55 



There is no absolute means of separating those who resided in town 
from those who lived in the country, but it is presumed that the agricul- 
turists were exclusively residents of the country ; while it is probable that 
26 



210 EFFECT OF OCCUPATION 

the larger part of those classed under the heads of raechauics and laborers 
dwelt in toAvns of greater or less size. The effect of locality, upon this pre- 
sumption, is made strikingly manifest in the superior value of life possessed 
by the agriculturist over that of the two classes of laborers who reside in 
town, being eighteen years longer in duration than that of the mechanic, 
and nearly twenty years beyond that of the laborer. 

These observations correspond somewhat with those of Mr. Neison's, 
which value the probabilities of the life of the baker below the average of 
mechanics, the life of the painter still lower, and that of the clerk lowest 
of all the occupations. They cannot be pursued further, because Mr. Neison 
has not given the probabilities of life incident to the other trades that came 
under his inspection, but they are sufficient to show that under like circum- 
stances the relative probabilities of life, as compared the one with the other, 
do not diifer materially in England and Massachusetts. 

This classification shows a very marked difference in the average age 
at death of the different mechanic arts, besides those just alluded to. Tan- 
ners and curriers, butchers and carpenters, stand high upon the list ; while 
machinists, and stonecutters, and printers, take a low stand. This table is 
very valuable so far as it goes, but it fails to enumerate many occupations 
more unhealthy than those already named, as the white lead manufacturer, 
the friction-matchmaker, and the daguerreotypist. 

There are obvious reasons, growing out of the circumstances incident 
to each pursuit, why one should be more favorable to longevity than another ; 
and were the diseases in each case carefully noted, it would lead to very 
satisfactory and practical results. 

In 1819, the English Government selected Mr. Finlaison, an eminent 
mathematician and vital statistician, to determine the law of mortality, and 
establish the value of the government annuities, and tontine schemes. 
Assisted by a large number of competent clerks, and aided by access to the 



IN EUROPE AND AMERICA. 211 

records of the names of those who for the space of a century had been 
upon the registers, as the recipients of annuities, or the nominees in tontines, 
and also provided with unlimited means to defray any expenditure required 
in the prosecution of his inquiries, he labored assiduously at his task, and at 
the expiration of ten years made a final report to the Lords of the Treasury, 
which comprised in a large number of tables the rates of mortality, and 
the value of a great number of different classes of annuities averaged for 
single and more lives. 

These tables, thus laboriously wrought out with consummate skill and 
great care, are regarded as the true exponent of the expectation of life in 
the class covered by his inquiries, and have always commanded the fullest 
confidence. 

From a comparison of the data furnished by them, as well as that col- 
lected by the various assurance companies, it appeared that the value of life 
among the government annuitants, and the insurers of lives in the diiferent 
assurance companies, which represented the affluent and superior classes, 
was less, as has already been observed, than among the humbler classes, 
found among the members of Friendly Societies. 

Dr. Guy, of King's College Hospital, from the facts afforded him by 
the works on peerage and baronetage, made a classification of the deaths 
which had occurred among the members of noble families, above twenty 
years of age, for a long period of years. 

The number of deaths thus collated amount to 2291, of which 1989 
were derived from the peerage, and the remainder from the baronetage. 
From these facts Mr. Neison formed a life table, showing the expectation of 
life in the males of the peerage and baronetage. 

The expectation of life, as thus deduced, together with the results 
obtained by Mr. Finlaison, on English annuitants, the experience of several 



212 EXPECTATION OF LIFE 

assurance companies, Milne's and Fan-'s tables, and that of the French 
annuitants, are placed side by side in the accompanying table :— 



Age. 


Peerage 
and 
Bart. 


England 
(Mr. Farr.) 


English 
Ann. 
(FinJaison.) 


Sweden & 
Finland, 
(Milne.) 


Carlisle, 
(Milne.) 


Equitable, 
(Morgan.) 


Amicable, 
(Galloway) 


French 

Ann. 

(Depar.) 


20 


38 


40 


38 


89 


41 


42 




40 


25 


35 


36 


36 


35 


38 


38 


38 


37 


30 


31 


33 


33 


32 


34 


34 


34 


34 


35 


27 


30 


30 


28 


31 


31 


30 


31 


40 


24 


27 


27 


25 


28 


27 


26 


27 


45 


21 


23 


24 


21 


24 


24 


22 


24 


60 


18 


20 


20 


18 


21 


20 


19 


20 


65 


15 


17 


17 


15 


18 


17 


16 


17 


60 


13 


14 


14 


12 


14 


14 


13 


14 


65 


10 


11 


12 


10 


12 


11 


10 


11 


TO 


8 


8 


9 


7 


9 


9 


8 


9 


T5. 


6 


6 


7 


5 


7 


7 


6 


6 


80 


5 


5 


5 


4 


5 


5 


6 


5 


85 


4 


4 


3 


3 


4 


3 


4 


3 


90 


3 


3 


2 


3 


3 


3 


3 


2 


95 


2 


2 


• 


2 


3 


• 


. 


a 


100 


1 


. 


. 


, 


• 


• 


^ 


, 



These columns certainly do not exhibit as high an expectation of life, 
either among the members of the families of the peerage and baronetage, 
or the English annuitants, as the average of English life shown in the 
column based upon Mr. Farr's results, and all of these fall below that of 
Mr. Nelson's, based upon the facts developed by the returns of the Friendly 
Societies. 

A comparison of the laboring and more independent classes in the 
United States, as developed by the Massachusetts returns, do not exhibit 
the same favorable results for the former, as are made manifest by the English 
tables. On the contrary, the average age at death of those engaged in 
mechanical pursuits is lower than the average age of the better classes. 



AMONG DIFFERENT CLASSES. 213 

The average age of laborers is 44.80 years, and that of mechanics as a 
class 46 years, while with merchants, the average age is 46.30 years, with 
professional men 49.03 years, and with public men 50.32 years. Among 
individual pursuits, those of the clergymen, advocates and medical men, 
rank higher than either of the trades, with the exception of the cooper and 
the shipwright, and the retired gentleman attains to an age superior to 
them all, averaging 68.29 years. 

There is a very wide difference between the relative chances of life 
enjoyed by the diiferent classes in Massachusetts and England, which must 
arise either from the higher expectation of life among the better class 
here, as compared with the same class in England, or a lower expectation 
among the laboring class here, as compared with the same class there. 

In applying the principles of the laws of mortality to life assurance, it 
must be taken into consideration, that while a knowledge of their rates 
at the extreme periods of life is necessary, yet at the same time those cir- 
cumstances which affect its duration after the first period has passed, and 
extreme age has not been attained, are of more immediate and practical 
importance, because it is precisely in this period of life that most appli- 
cants for assurance present themselves, and over which most of the policies, 
whose duration is limited by a fixed number of years extend. It may 
thus happen that the proportionate mortality of one latitude may not 
exceed that of another, or may even fall below ; and yet the probabilities 
of life at the ages usually covered by life assurance may be much less. 
Thus, if the prevailing disease be dysentery or scarlatina, its heaviest 
demand will be made upon the early periods of life ; if consumption and 
scrofula, it will fall with greatest force upon the period between 20 and 30 
years ; and if dropsy, apoplexy, or paralysis, it will fall with greatest 
force upon advanced life. 

In order, therefore, to determine with any degree of accuracy the 



214 CONCLUSION. 

effect of locality upon the duration of life, a knowledge of the diseases 
that terminate it is as necessary as an exact account of the number who 
have died, and the ages at which death took place. The tables accom- 
panying this report will, it is hoped, enable these comparisons to be insti- 
tuted with a reasonable approximation to correct results. 



=^- 



WM. C. BRYANT & 00., PRINTERS, CORNER NASSAU AND LIBERTY STREETS, N. Y. 



INDEX. 



Acclimation, .... 

" Dr. L.I Roche on 

" Life, cost of 

" Dr. Nott on 

Age of parents, effect on sexes at births. 
Ages of living in each State, . 

'' at marriage in Massachusetts, . 
" " " " Kentucky, . 
" " " " Belgium, 
" " « " North and South, 
Aged class of population, . 
American summer, heat of . 

" " source of disease, . 

Army mortality in British service, . 
" " " United States, 

" statistics not applicable to civil life, 
Atlantic plain, features of 
Average age of English population, . 
" " " American " 

" " " at death, 



111 

190 

197 

199 

198 

76 

181 

92 

93 

03 

96 

33 

136 

136 

131 

133 

134 

137 

32 

32 

183 



Balfour, Dr., on table of mortality in 
Eastern British service, . . . 131 

Births, census returns of . . 45 

" disparity in . . . .45 

" ^^'^y greater in some places than 

others, . , . . 45 



Births, more abundant in new than old 

countries, .... 45 

" affected by the seasons, . 49 

" Milne on .... 48 

" in Massachusetts, ... 58 

" in Rhode Island, ... 59 

" in New Jersey, ... .63 

" in Connecticut, ... 63 

" in Kentucky, ... 64 

Born dead, proportion of . . .77 
" " " in Kentucky, 78 
" " " in Ma.ssachusetts, 77 
" " " in European coun- 
tries, ..... 79 

Boston, births in ... . 55 

" " of natives and foreigners, 56 

" " in different wards, . . 56 

" " mortality in . . 164 

Bowditch, Dr., on consumption in Massa- 
chusetts, ..... 178 

California, mortality .... 160 

Carpenter on sexes at birth, . . 76 
Carnival, effect of on season of mari'iage 

in France, . . . . .91 

Chadwick on population in United States, 3 1 

" " average age of living, . 32 

Chickering on Emigration, ... 43 



11 



INDEX. 



PAGE 

Census returns of birtbs, . . . 103 
" " " marriages, . . 103 
" " " deaths, . . lOV 
Climate of the great Jake region, . . 144 
" " mountain " . 144 
" " seashore and inland, . . 194 
" Dr. Johnson on . . . 494 
Clark, Dr., on still-born, . . .81 
Conception in Kentucky, ... 83 
" effect of seasons on . . 83 
" Milne on ... 84 
" in Sweden and France, . 85 
Connecticut, births in . . . 63 
Consumption, season most fatal, . . 176 
" in Massachusetts, . . 178 
" in Kentucky, . . .177 
" Dr. Bowditch on . . 178 
" per cent, of, in Massachu- 
setts and Kentucky, . 180 
Curtis, Dr.-, on sexes at birth, . . 67 

Deaths, census returns of . . .107 
" in difierent States, . . 107 

" number of in United States, . 107 
" proportion of sexes, . . 108 

" in Massachusetts, . . . 108 
" in New Hampshire, . . 108 

" per cent, at difierent ages, . 109 

" excess of males in early life, 110 

" i^roportion to Hving, . .-110 

" male and female in Massachu- 
setts, . . . .111 
Dist. of Columbia, 111 
Wurtemberg, . Ill 
" affected by migration, . . 113 
" in each season, . . .151 

" difierent States, . . . 151 

Dependent classes, .... 83 

Diseases, classification of . . . 172 
" of warm climates, . . . 202 

" of cold " . . 202 

" per cent, of, in different States, 175 

" '■ " " localities, 179 

Drake, Dr., on Mississippi Valley, . 19 



PAGE 

Dwellings, number of in Europe, . . 156 
" " " in United States, 155 

Effect of locality on mortality, . . 164 

" " geological formation on health, 141 

Emigration, per cent, in United States, . 39 

" " different States, 39 

" '■ " " European countries, 41 

" Irish to America, . . 52 

Emigrants, condition of . . . 41 

" now and heretofore, . .43 
" in town, and country, . . 40 

Emigrant ofBce, English, I'eport of . 53 

European States, births in . . .66 

Fecundity, laws of .... 48 

Females, deaths among . . . 108 

" " in Massachusetts, . 110 

" " in Dist. of Columbia, 110 

" "in Wurtemberg, . Ill 

" " in excess in country, . 116 

Female mortality in Massachusetts, . 125 

" " in Maryland, . .125 

" " in England, . . 126 

Fever, a disease of middle hfe, . . 179 

" per cent, of, in Massachusetts and 

Kentucky, .' . . 180 

Finlaison on English Annuitants, . 180 

Gotha Bank do not insure pregnant 

women, . . . . . 122 

Geology of the Atlantic plain and slope, 137 

" of Valley of Mississippi, . . 140 

Gulf stream, effect of . . . 147 

Guy, Dr., on Hves of English peerage, . 211 

Hofacker on sexes at birth, . . 76 

Hopfs' statistics of male and female 

mortality, . . . . .122 

Heat of American summer a source of 

disease, . . . . . 135 

Ireland, marriages in . . . .50 

" proportion of births, . . 50 



INDEX. 



Ill 



Ireland, Thorn's statistics 
Irish condition of in Ireland and America, 
Infantile mortality, . . '. 
" " excess of 

" " census returns, 



53 

52 

51 

184 

184 

want of correctness in, 184 



Kentucky, births in ... . 64 

" still-born in . . .81 

" conception in . . . 83 

" months most prolific in . .83 

" and Montpellier correspondence, 86 

Kennedy's table of male and female mor- 
tality, 125 

Kane, Dr., effect of cold climate on, . 203 



Life-table, English ■ . 
" insurance experience in male and 
female mortality. 
Local influences, effect of . 
Laws of mortality not alike in England 

•and America, 

Louisiana, Dr. Barton on . 
Locality, effect of on mortality, 

Mississippi Valley, .... 
Mountain ranges, .... 
Mortality census, .... 

Mortality returns, .... 
" of Europe, . . . • 
" per cent, of . , • 

Milne on Conception, 

Massachusetts, reports of births, 

Male and female, proportions of in the 

United States, .... 
Massachusetts and Sweden, correspond- 
ence between ..... 
Marriages, in different months . 

" Massachusetts, 

" Kentucky, 

" Shattuck on 

" in different States, . 

" census returns of . 



13 

122 
129 

153 
168 

178 

19 
20 
16 
25 

25 
25 
48 
56 

75 



83 

89 

90 

103 

103 



Moisture in Europe and American cli- 
mates, . . . .147 

Mortality in different States, . . 107 

" of the sexes in Massachusetts, . 121 

" " " at different ages, 121 
" correspondence between Sweden 

and Massachusetts, . . 128 

" among British troops, . 131 
" maximum and minimum periods 

of 158 

" in Massachusetts, , . 158 
" in Kentucky, . . .158 

" in Rhode Island, . . 159 
" in California, . . .160 

" in Northern and Southern cities, 104 

" in Southern States, Dr. Nott on 170 

Mourgue on marriages in France, . . 91 

New Jersey, births in . . . . 63 
New Orleans, Dr. Simonds on the mor- 
tality of . . . 165 
Dr. Barton " " . 108 
Nott, Dr., on mortality of Southern States 170 
Nelson on effect of occupation, . , 205 
" on select lives .... 205 



Moisture, sources of 



proportion of, in different States 103 



147 



Occupation, effect on life . 

" in other countries, 

" in England, 

" Deaths in each . 

Odd Fellows, table of mortality among 

Population of United States, 

" ages of . 

" distribution of . . . 

" ratios of each age 

" origin of ... . 

" productive capacity of 
Probabilities of life, .... 
Pi'oductive classes, .... 
Prussian Government's providence. 
Proportion of sexes at birth, 

" of males to females in the U. S. 
Parallelisms in U. States and Europe, . 



205 

208 
206 
208 
203 

21 
21 
21 
21 

22 
31 
26 
33 
35 
67 
75 
133 



IV 



INDEX. 



Per cent, of mortality in the cliief cities 
of the United States, . . .164 

Quetelet on male and female deaths, . 11 7 
" the moitahty of the sexes at 

different ages, . . .121 



Registration among the ancients 


10 


(( 


in Geneva, Switzerland, 


11 


II 


in England, . 


12 


(( 


in United States, 


12 


a 


in Massachusetts, 


12 


u 


in New Jersey, . 


13 


a 


in Connecticut, 


13 


(( 


in Rhode Island, 


13 


t( 


in Kentucky, . 


13 


u 


in Virginia, 


13 


u 


in South Carolina, . 


13 


Rhode Island, births in 


. 59 


Rate of mortality in different countries. 


132 


u 


« in U. S. Army, 


133 



States, areas of . . • • 

" per cent, of area, 

" ratio of . 
Sexes, proportion of at birth, 

« " in Massachusetts, 

" " in Providence, 

" " in Europe, 

" " in Kentucky, 

" " in Virginia, 

" " in Charleston, S. C, 

Sadler on sexes at birth, . 
Still-born, properties of 
Seasons, effect on conception in Kentucky, 
Sutton, Dr., on conception in Kentucky, 
Sweden, table of conception in . 
Shattuck on New England marriages, 
Sardinia, returns of males and females, 

" returns of male and female deaths 
in town and country, . 



19 
19 
19 

67 
68 
VI 
70 
72 
7.2 
73 
76 
77 
83 
83 
85 
90 
118 

120 



Sutton's table of mortality of sexes in 

Kentucky, 125 

Seasons in the United States, . . 135 

" influence of ... . 151 

" deaths in each . . . 11 

Summer mortality in the United States, 152 

Sanger, Dr., on mortality of California, . 160 

Simonds on the mortality of New Orleans, 160 

Southwestern mortality . . .170 

Southern mortality greatest in middle life, 180 

" " in infiincy and old age, 180 

Summer mortality in United States, . 202 

Tucker on probabilities of life, . . 26 

" on mortality in the United Stales, 26 

Thom's Irish statistics, . . . 53 

Tripe on still-born, .... 80 

Table of mortality among British troops, 131 

" " " in U. S. Army, . 133 

Temperature, range of in the U. States, 192 

" sea and inland, . . 192 

Trade -wind, its influence, . . 147 

Town and Country mortality in England 

and America, . . . .154 

Table of per cent, of living of each age 

in the various States, . . . 181 

United States territorial limits, . , 18 

" great divisions, . . 19 

" ■• growth of ... 23 

" natural divisions of . 137 
" proportion of town and 

country population . 155 



Virginia, births in . . . 


. 64 


" still-born in 


81 


Value of European lives, table of . 


. 206 


Wargentin on still-born. 


. 81 


Winds in United States, . 


135 


Winter, mortality in Europe 


. 135 


" in England, . 


202 



NEW YOKK: 

WM. C. BRYANT A CO., PRINTERS, 41 NASSAU STREET, CORNER OP LIBERTY. 



1857. 



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